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Pre-
history
For surmises on mind and healing before we have written records
click here. For interpretations of prehistoric art
click here.
Historical
times
According to
Ackernecht, E. H.
(1959 ch.2 p.9) "...the great cultures of old, such as
those of
Egypt and Mesopotamia, vacillated between
naturalistic and
supernatural explanations of diseases...". For some other
people's thoughts
click here
Ancient Greece and Rome
Ackernecht (1959 ch.2 p.9) argues that:
"The history of
psychiatry, like that of scientific medicine in
general, really begins with
the Greeks. The Greco-Roman outlook survived
unchanged until
the eighteenth century, and even today we still use a large
part of the Greek nomenclature...
the Greeks
declared themselves
outspokenly in favour of
naturalistic explanations and thus became the
founders of scientific medicine and of psychiatry." ...
For some other
people's thoughts
click here
638
Moslem conquest of Syria. 637 Moslem conquest of
Iraq. 640 Moslem conquest of Egypt. 710 Moslems invade Spain.
They went as far as
France, but were defeated at Tours in 732 and moved back to
Spain.
Hospitals of medieval Islam
Ackernecht (1959 ch.3 p.16-17) says:
"There is not much to say about
medieval psychiatry...
classical naturalistic concepts of mental illness were ... preserved in a
few places and among some sections of society. This was particularly true
within the hospitals which were the greatest medical achievement of the
Middle Ages. Although we know that large hospitals were established as
early as the fourth century, we have details about psychiatric sections in
such institutions only since the founding of the great
Arabic hospitals"
[Muhammad]
He lists:
Baghdad as opening in
750. - Baghdad was made the capital of
the Abbasid dynasty in 750 AD by the Caliph Abu-Jaifar Al-Mansur
(external link). The
hospital known as Baghdad Hospital was established under his successor
Harun
Arl-Rashid (786-809 AD) - But there were other Baghdad hospitals.
(Hossam Arafa). See also
Iraq history. "The most illustrious among the
Arab physicians was Rhazes (865-925), the 'Persian Galen'... physician-in-
chief to the Baghdad Hospital, one of the first of the ancient hospitals to
have a ward devoted to the mentally ill" (Alexander and Selesnick
1966, p.62)
Cairo as opening in 873. Al-Fustat Hospital, in what is now
Old Cairo, was built in
872 and was open for six centuries. Al-
Mansuri Hospital was built in
1284. It was divided into different
sections according to ailments. Music was used as therapy for psychiatric
patients. It served 4,000 patients daily and the stay in the hospital was
free. On discharge, patients were given food and money as compensation for
being out of work during the hospital stay. It is now used for
ophthalmology and renamed Qalawun Hospital.
(Hossam Arafa). See also
Ted Thornton's History of the Middle East
database
Ackernecht (1959 ch.3 p.16-17) says:
"(The Arabs also accommodated the mentally ill in
monasteries.) To this day the Mohammedans have unusually sympathetic
attitudes to the mentally ill which are reflected in the Koran.
[Bible and Koran
weblinks]
The Arabs
were also apparently the first to build special institutions for the
insane: Damascus, 800; Aleppo, 1270; Kaladun, 1283; Cairo, 1304; Fez, 1500.
The Arabs achieved more in the care of the insane than in the field of
psychiatry itself. Here, as in the rest of medicine, they merely repeated
and expanded the Greek concepts of mental illness.
Ackernecht, E. H.
1959 ch.3 p.16-17
Psychiatric departments in general hospitals were not rare in the Middle
Ages. They existed in the west since the
thirteenth century, e.g. in Paris,
Lyon, Montpellier, London, Munich, Braunschweig, Freiburg, Zurich, Basle
etc. Here the classical traditions undoubtedly survived."
Ackernecht, E. H.
1959 ch.3 p.16-17
|
This somewhat mysterious (and anachronistic) passage in
Ackernecht, E. H.
1959 (ch.3 p.16-17) presumably refers to places like
London's Bedlam. [Does anyone have a better idea what he refers
to?]
"Psychiatric departments in general hospitals were not rare in
the Middle
Ages. They existed in the west since the
thirteenth century, e.g. in Paris,
Lyon, Montpellier, London, Munich, Braunschweig, Freiburg, Zurich, Basle
etc. Here the classical traditions undoubtedly survived."
Heidelberg University founded 1386
(map) -
Wikipedia -
University website history
See 1855 -
chair of psychiatry 1871 -
1930 -
1933 -
Wolfgang Huber 1964
Leipzig University
(map) Founded 1409 as a breakaway
from
Prague University. From the
early 19th century
Leipzig played an important part in the development of psychology and
psychiatry.
"In 1457 the Freiburg Cathedral was the site of the foundation
of a university. The financier and figure after whom the institution was
named was Archduke Albert 6th, of whose dominion, Western Austria, Freiburg
was then a part. The "Albertina" was founded as a comprehensive university,
including all important faculties of the time: Theology, Law, Medicine, and
Philosophy. Its purpose was to educate young theologians and
administrators. Some of the first students lived in "Bursen" (hostels) on
the site of what is now known as the "Old University," where the first
lectures also took place. Classes were held in Latin."
(source)
Asylums outside Spain: "The opening of special institutions in Spain
was
followed in the
16th century by the founding of similar hospitals in
Rome,
Paris,
Amsterdam, Marseilles, Avignon, Hamburg, Lubeck and elsewhere".
Ackernecht, E. H.
1959 ch.3 p.21-22
Rome: pazzarella, or place for mad people, may have existed
in Rome since the mid-14th century. OR "The pazzarella at Rome already
mentioned was founded during the sixteenth century by Ferrantez Ruiz and
the Bruni, father and son, all three Navarrese". A legacy enabled the
management, with the approbation of Pope Pius 4th, to open a new house in
1561, in the Via Lata.
(Catholic Encyclopedia)
Dolhuys, Amsterdam, 1562 may have been the second purpose built
asylum in Europe.
In 1641 the Charenton Asylum was founded in one of the suburbs of
Paris, near the Park of Vincennes, and was placed under monastic rule.
After the foundation of the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, the
charge of this institution was given to them
(Catholic Encyclopedia).
See 1826
Ackernecht's
(1959) (ch.4 p.29)
decription of 17th century institutional developments is a summary of
Foucault:
"The absolutist governments of the mid-seventeenth century
decided to resolve their social crisis by incarcerating all the poor. In
Paris this occurred in
May 1657. The men were taken to the Bicetre, the women to the
Salpetriere. In France these pauper prisons were deceitfully called
"Hopital general"; in Germany, more truthfully, "Zuchthaus" [discipline-
house]; in Great
Britain "workhouse."
|
"Halle was founded in 1694 by the elector Frederick 3rd of Brandenburg as a
centre for the Lutheran party. It has been called the first modern
university, largely because it soon renounced religious orthodoxy in favour
of objectivity and rationalism, scientific attitudes, and free
investigation. Canonical texts were replaced by systematic lectures, and
disputations by seminars; German took the place of Latin as the language of
instruction; an elective system replaced the traditional formalized
curriculum; and professors were given almost complete control of their
work. The relative liberalism of Halle was adopted by Göttingen a
generation later and was gradually taken up by all German, and then most
American, universities".
(source) - See
HalleWittenberg
From
"Focus on psychiatry in South Africa" Robin Emsley,
The British Journal of Psychiatry (2001) 178: 382-386:
"Institutional medical practice began in South Africa over 300 years
ago with the establishment of a small hospital in Cape Town by Jan van
Riebeeck. The first hospital to cater specifically for mentally deranged
persons was established in 1711. It was an apartment that was added
to the new Cape Hospital, which had been completed in 1699 by
Simon
van der Stel." See
19th century
|
1737
University of Gottingen founded by George
2nd, King of Great Britain and Elector of Hanover.
1749 Gottfried Achenwall (1719-1772), professor at Gottingen,
used the term
Statistik in
his Staatsverfassung der heutigen vornehmsten europäischen Reiche
und
Völker im Grundrisse [Political Constitution of the present
principal
European countries and Peoples]
1779 Idea Fidei Fratrum, oder kurzer Begriff der christlichen
Lehre in den evangelischen Brüdergemeinen, dargelegt von August
Gottlieb Spangenberg. "Idea fidei fratrum, or a short conceptualisation
of Christian doctrine in the [Moravian Church], set forth by August
Gottlieb Spangenber". Translated into English by Benjamin La Trobe as An
Exposition of Christian Doctrine in 1796.
117: "Of the WILL of GOD concerning our SALVATION".
"If we sum up the scriptural doctrine concerning the Father, the Son, and
the Holy Ghost, we may confidently affirm, that God would have all men to
be saved. He has shown the most fervent desire, and the most earnest will
that we all should be saved; which is evident from his having given his own
and only Son, to endure the greatest distress, and death itself, that we
all might live through him. (John 3:17 and Romans 8:32.) It is plain from
1 Timothy 2:6 and 1 John 2:2 that it is the ardent desire of our Lord Jesus
Christ to save us all."
"The eighteenth century saw the creation of numerous asylums which
continued into the nineteenth century and which provided the material
structure for the future development of psychiatry. We shall mention only a
few: Bologna (1710); Warsaw (1726); Berlin (1728);
Dublin (1745); Ludwigsburg (1746);
London (1759); Deventer (1760);
Manchester and Copenhagen (1766); Williamsburg (1773);
Vienna (1784); Frankfurt on Main (1785)".
"at the end of the century... Abraham Joly in Geneva (1787); Pinel in the
Paris Bicetre
(1793); William
Tuke, the Quaker, of York
(1796); Vincenzo
Chiarugi (1759-1820) after
1788
in Tuscany, and John [Johann] Gottfried Langermann (1768-1852) in 1805 in
Bayreuth,
struck off the chains from the insane.".[in German: "Befreiung der Irren
von ihren Ketten" Sounds good!]
Ackernecht, E. H.
1959 ch.5 pp
34-35
Langerman was superintendent of an asylum near
Bayreuth, Bavaria. Alexander and Selesnick say that it was largely due to
his efforts that "other humanitarian hospitals were established at
Seidburg
and Leubus, in Prussia"
Vienna
1784 Narrenturm ("fools' tower)
Constructed
in the grounds
of Vienna's Old General Hospital. It was paid for by Emperor Joseph 2nd,
who also gave instructions as to its design. It is a circular building with
139 single cells. Access is only by one door. The layout of the building
was used to classify patients.
|
|
Neil Sturrock (email 30.12.2006):
"The main difference between this and
the Panopticon was that the supervision was carried out from a
guards'
building which bisected the Narrenturm rather than a round tower at the
centre"
Cutting provided by Neil Sturrock
The most interesting part of the hospital is the asylum behind the
Josephinum, nicknamed the Narrenturm (tower of the insane) by the
locals. The insane used to be housed here but it is now the Museum of
Medical History. It was the only building in the immediate area of the
hospital that was entirely newly constructed.
Isidor Canevale created a cylindrical building whose exterior
was
originally entirely rusticated. The slit-like windows give the building the
appearance of a fortification, and similar designs are more commonly to be
found in prison architecture than in hospital design. Behind the narrow
openings for daylight there are the radially arranged cells, with a walkway
connecting with the court. They can only be reached through the guardians'
wing which divides the court in two. Through this arrangement, the care and
supervision of patients could be maintained with a minimum level of
staffing
|
See
below for 19th century elsewhere
November 1836 The Rev. William Barnett was placed in "a private
lunatic asylum" by the police authorities of Vienna.
"He was always endeavouring to impress upon the minds of those
who called upon him that he had been for the space of 45 hours in
hell...The Rev. Mr Barnett also laboured under the delusion that his banker
at Vienna issued none but forged notes; when at the asylum, near Vienna, he
fasted for three days and three nights, and gave as his reason that God had
ordered him to do so, and at the same time had also ordered him to lie in
bed during that period, and to keep his room darkened; he also imagined
that the food in the asylum was poisoned, and would have starved himself
had not the medical officers compelled him to take nourishment". (The
Times
19.7.1837. Cutting provided by Richard Shrubb)
8.6.1837 John Livesay and "Dr Koestler, the medical officer of the
lunatic asylum at Vienna" where William Barnett was confined, left Vienna
with the Rev. Barnett, to take him to England, where he was confined at
Clapham Retreat.
1839 A. Leopold Koestler (or Köstler)
Bemerkungen über mehrere
Irrenanstalten von England, Frankreich, und Belgien,
(Remarks over several lunatic asylums of England, France, and Belgium)
published Vienna.
1848-1853 the Lower Austrian provincial psychiatric hospital in
Viennaļs
9th district was opened.
In 1853 use of the Narrenturm ceased
"In the course of the 19th century psychiatric hospitals were established
in all Austrian provinces, which, in addition to university clinics for
psychiatry, provide most of the in-patient psychiatric care in Austria".
1903-1907 The
pavilion-like
Lower Austrian provincial hospital for
the treatment and care of psychiatric patients "Am Steinhof" (today the
Psychiatric Hospital of the City of Vienna, located at Baumgartner
Hähe) was established. See
the church.
Steht man im Innenraum der Kirche, vergißt man leicht, daß das
Gotteshaus für Geisteskranke konzipiert wurde
"If one stands in the interior of the church, one forgets easily that
it is designed as a place of worship for mental patients"
|
Johann Christian Reil (1759-1813). Graduated in
Halle 1782. After 1787, professor at Halle and, at
the same time, the official physician of the city of Halle (Stadtphysikus).
His Rhapsodieen über die
Anwendung der psychischen Curmethode auf Geisteszerrüttungen
(Rhapsodies on the Application of Psychic Treatment Methods
to Mental Disturbances) was published in 1803.
"Ueber den Begriff der Medicin und ihre Verzweigungen, besonders in
Beziehung auf die Berichtigung der Topik der Psychiaterie"
(On the term of medicine and its branches, especially with regard to the
rectification of the topic in psychiatry) by Reil
published in Beyträge
zur Beförderung einer Kurmethode auf psychischem Wege
in 1808. - See
psychiatry and its alleged
200th birthday and index of
official
starts.
In 1810 Reil became
professor of Medicine at the newly founded
University of Berlin. Campaigned
unsuccessfully for the foundation of psychiatric institutes in Berlin and
Halle. Coined term Psychiaterie in a publication of 1808.
1810 University of Berlin (Universität zu Berlin) founded by
Wilhelm von Humboldt.
Johann Christian Reil professor of medicine 1810
Georg Friedrich Hegel Professor of Philosophy from 1818
Leopold von Ranke Professor of history? 1824 to 1871.
"At the university, Ranke became deeply involved in the dispute between the
followers of the legal professor Friedrich Carl von Savigny who emphasized
the varieties of different periods of history and the followers of the
philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel who saw history as the unfolding
of a universal story. Ranke supported Savigny and criticized the Hegelian
view of history as being a one-size-fits-all approach".
(Wikipedia 24.12.2010)
|
|
From
"Focus on psychiatry in South Africa" Robin Emsley,
The British Journal of Psychiatry (2001) 178: 382-386:
In
South Africa
"The Old Somerset Hospital was the first hospital offering care for
the insane from its inception in 1818. However, these facilities
were regarded as inappropriate for this purpose, and in 1846 the
prison colony on Robben Island was converted into a hospital for
lepers, lunatics and other chronically ill patients. By 1912, the
Robben Island Infirmary housed 500 mental patients. During this period,
several other `lunatic asylums' were built, ensuring that mentally ill
patients were largely isolated from the community. These included the
Town Hill Asylum in Pietermaritzburg, Fort England Mental
Hospital in Grahamstown, Valkenberg Lunatic Asylum in
Cape Town, and the Pretoria Lunatic Asylum"
|
Gotthard Guggenmoos. Born 5.5.1775 Stötten/Auerberg (Germany),
Died
29.1.1838 Hallein (Salzburg, Austria). Private teacher. Taught
children with impaired hearing and speech from 1812. In
1829 opened
in Salzburg his "Stummen und Kretinenschule" (institute for deaf-mutes and
cretins). "The first school for the mentally impaired in German-speaking
countries". Closed in 1835 for financial reasons.
Johann Jakob Guggenbühl(1816-1863). "In the face of much
opposition, built the first institution for cretins on the Abendberg near
Interlaaken in 1840". In 1845 Extracts from the First
Report of the Institution on the Abendberg, near Interlachen, Switzerland;
for the Cure of Cretinism, by Guggenbühl, published in London.
London.]
"The immortal soul is essentially the same in every creature
born of woman" (Guggenbühl)
|
Ackernecht says
(1959 ch.8 pp 63-64):
"German administrative psychiatry flourished during this
period.
Modern institutions were opened everywhere"
The examples he gives (flushed left), with others (flushed right) are:
Sonnenstein opened in
1811
Prague (capital of Bohemia) opened 1822
Siegburg, north of Bonn, south of Koln (Cologne, capital
Rhenish Province of Prussia), opened in 1825
(map). Under the direction of
Carl Wigand Maximilian Jacobi
Dusseldorf opened in 1826 Rhenish Province? of Prussia
Hildesheim (Hanover) opened in 1827
Colditz opened in 1829 (between Leipzig and Dresden in
Saxony)
(map)
Sachsenberg "Irren-Heilanstalt Sachsenberg",
opened in 1830
Under
the direction of K. (C.F.?) Flemming (1799-1880).
(external link)
(external link - blanket dated just before Nazi
period) "Sachsenberg psychiatric asylum in Schwerin".
Museums list includes
Museum
at the Sachsenberg at Schwerin. Address: 19055 Schwerin, Wismar
Strasse 393. The "former" lunatic asylum was opened 1830 as the first
German purpose built lunatic asylum. Exhibitions about the history of
psychiatry: in the former water tower.
Winnenthal opened in 1834
(map). Superintendent: A. Zeller,
1804-1872, Griesinger's teacher
Halle opened in 1836
(map?)
Under the direction of H. Damerow, 1798-1866, a pupil of Esquirol
Illenau Institution, near Achern
(map)
in the Black Forest, opened in 1842 Superintendent: Christian
Roller, 1802-1878.
history link
"During
this period 30 institutions were opened in Germany, 18 in
France and as
many as 38 in Great Britain.
Thus the directors of institutions, whose speculations were constantly
exposed to the test of reality through their daily contact with the
patients among whom they lived, became the leaders of German psychiatry
between 1830 and 1860. Three of the best known (Damerow, Roller and
Flemming) founded the "Allgemeine Zeitschrift fr Psychiatrie" in 1844,
taking as their model the French "Annales" with whose editors they were in
close contact. This was the first German psychiatric journal which was to
survive. Except for the somaticist, Flemming, their philosophy was an
anthropological one based on the unity of mind, body and soul."
Ackernecht, E. H.
1959 ch.8 pp 63-64
|
1822:
1822: "En 1822, les docteurs Voisin et Falret ouvrirent
á
Vanves une maison de santé pour le traitement des
aliénés."
external link. Jean-Pierre Falret (1794-1870)
with his friend Felix Voisin (1794-1872) founded the famous private
hospital in Vanves.
Falret began his work with studies on suicide.
Voisin, who was much influenced by Gall, devoted himself above all to the
study and training of the feebleminded. (Ackernecht, E.
H. 1959 ch.6 p.51) [See Jacobi]
1826:
1826:
Esquirol's "private sanatorium in Ivry and his institution at
Charenton, which were built according to his own plans and which
he
administered from 1826, were model institutions. Charenton (at present
under the direction of Professor Baruk who lovingly guards Esquirol's
beautiful library) is to this day a remarkable place. The asylums in Saint-
Yon, Le Mans, Montpellier and Marseilles were also built according to his
plans".
(Ackernecht, E.
H. 1959 ch.6 p.50) -
[Rouen was also
designed on Esquirol's principles]
1828:
1828
Ospedale provinciale de' mentecatti in the Papal State of Pesaro opened.
Known as Ospizio di San Benedetto di Pesaro - Manicomio provinciale di San
Benedetto di Pesaro - Ospedale psichiatrico provinciale San Benedetto di
Pesaro from 1929. Until 1834 the asylum was managed by an accountant and a
group of physicians in the city were responsible for the care of the sick.
From 1834, a resident doctor ran the asylum and a team of doctors and
nurses was recruited to work exclusively within the asylum.
In
1871 a competition was announced: submitted an application 22
doctors,
including
Cesare Lombroso, who from 1872 took over the leadership of the
hospital, making improvements of sanitary conditions, setting up study
rooms and a pathology laboratory. A men's school in the
psychiatric hospital started in 1871 and a women's school in
1872: teaching patients and nurses. The early years of the
twentieth century saw small and medium enhancements. In 1928, the Board of
Supervisors on asylums (introduced by Law no. 36 of
14.2.1904)
denounced the serious deficiency of the mental health and hygiene of
Pesaro. Closed 1981.
(source).
1838:
30.6.1838
"Avec la loi du
30 juin 1838, qui fait obligation
chaque département de
se doter d'un asile d'aliénés (ou de traiter avec un asile
d'un autre département), leur nombre s'accroit au fil des
décennies (en 1865, 41 asiles départementaux, 18 quartiers
d'hospice, 16 asiles privés faisant fonction d'asiles publics, et la
Maison impériale de Charenton), et celui des lits approche les
55.000 en 1888".
Histoire de la psychiatrie en France
1838: The old hospital at Maréville has a gatehouse dating
back to the eighteenth century. After the French Revolution it
progressively become an asylum for lunatics. By accepting patients from
other departments. it achieved 500 patients by 1814. From 1818 it was run
by the Sisters of Saint Charles. Then, in 1838, it became the
departmental hospital for the insane. (Asile d'Aliénés de
Maréville at Nancy).
Benedict Augustin Morel was director from 1848 to
1856, when he was appointed director of the mental asylum at Saint-Yon in
Rouen.
Charles Joseph Jouy was confined in the asylum in 1867
In 1879, Mareville was the most important asylum in France (French
Wikipedia). In 1949 he took the name of centre psychotherapique and it
becomes a public health facility on 30.10.1970.
1841:
Auxerre, Bourgoyne
1848 and 1849 European missionaries saw the mountains in East
Africa that are called (from African languages) Kilimanjaro and Kenya.
Kenya gave its name to Kenya Colony (previously
British East
Africa) in 1920 and, after that, it became usual to call the
mountain "Mount Kenya".
|
1863-1869:
St Anne, Paris
|
Hospital Perray-Vaucluse built on an estate acquired in Épinay-sur-
Orge by the Department of the Seine in 1863. Opened
26.1.1869. One of five
mental health institutions sectorialised on Paris. It later absorbed
Esquirol, Maison Blanche and
Sainte-Anne.
(source) - See
Groupe d'information sur le Asiles
1972
|
From 1855
Wilhelm Maximillian Wundt (1832-1920) worked with Mueller
and
then Helmhotz at
Heidelberg University where he was appointed professor in
1864. From 1867 he taught physiological psychology and in 1873 published
the first volume of
The Principles of Physiological Psychology. In
1874 Wundt was appointed to professor of inductive philosophy at the
University of Zurich and in 1875 professor at the University of
Leipzig, where he remained for forty-five years. He was given
his first
laboratory (one room) in
1875. In 1879 he opened his first full
laboratory with more rooms and equipment. In 1883 he founded the
first (?) psychological journal, which was called Philosophische
Studien (Philosophical Studies). In 1897 he was given his own
building for a laboratory. Died in Grossbothen near Leipzig in 1920
(external link)
External link: Emil Kraepelin
Wilhelm Griesinger (1817-1868):
"In 1860, he was appointed medical clinic in Zurich and director of the
university psychiatric clinic of the Burghölzli. These new functions
allowed him to initiate the official teaching of psychiatry, which he
continued in Berlin until 1865"
Ackernecht says
(1959 ch.9 p.74):
"...the period which was now to begin was that of "university psychiatry,"
and "As far as its orientation was concerned, psychiatry was now
predominantly brain psychiatry".
He notes the establishment of these professorial chairs in psychiatry in
universities within the German speaking area of Europe:
Berlin in 1864
Gottingen in 1866
Zurich in 1869
Heidelberg in 1871 -
Badische [Baden]
Universitäts-Irrenklinik, the first university hospital for the
insane, opened in 1878.
(External link to history).
The first chair holder C. Fürstner was neuropathologist. In 1890, he
moved to Strasbourg.
Emil Kraepelin was in charge of it from
1891 to
1903. He was
succeded by Karl Bonhoeffer (two months only) and Franz Nissl (1904-1918).
See
1909.
Karl Wilmanns ran the clinic from 1918 to 1933. See
1919.
Wilmanns was removed by the
Nazis. His Nazi
successor,
Carl Schneider, committed suicide on
11.12.1946. Kurt Schneider was chair of psychiatry from 1945 to 1955,
Walter Ritter von Baeyer from 1955 to 1972. Wolfgang Huber began working at
the clinic 1964. In 1970
Huber was at the centre of the post-1968 student conflicts in the clinic
leading to the formation of the SPK. Werner Janzarik (1973-1988) restored order.
From 1989 to 2009 Christoph Mundt, who wrote a
"History of Psychiatry in Heidelberg".
Sabine C Herpertz took over in 2009
Vienna in 1877
Leipzig and Bonn in 1882.
13.6.1886 Dr Bernhard von Gudden and his patient, Ludvig
2nd king of
Bavaria, drowned in Lake Starnberg near Castle Berg, Bavaria. The official
explanation is that the king murdered his psychiatrist and then committed
suicide.
external link
|
German History - mid-ninteeenth century
1861
2.1.1861 Wilhelm 1st of Prussia. (b.1797 d.1888)
1862
September 1862 Bismarck chief minister of Prussia. In 1860s he flirted
with the Lassalleans
1863
1863 Leipzig congress of workers' unions founds Lassallean socialist party
[ADAV]. Ferdinand Lassalle (d. 1864) wanted producers' co-ops funded by the
state
1864
1864 Danish war over Schleswig Holstein. Weber born
First International Workingmen's Association established by French and
English Labour leaders in London (dissolved 1876). Marx drew up its
Inaugural Address - a much more moderate document than the Communist
Manifesto (1848). The Lassallean's did not join.
1865
1866
1866 "Seven Weeks War" of Prussia and her allies with Austria and other
German states. - Old German ties cut. The Austrian Empire advocated
Grossdeutschland, a concept whereby all German-speaking lands would
unite. Prussia however, preferred
Kleindeutschland whereby all German states except those in Austria,
would be led by Prussia. The outcome of the Prussian victory was the
exclusion of Austria from the German Confederation and the termination of
Austrian dominance of the German nations. Prussian victory was followed by
the establishment of two German blocks:
1867
1867 North German Federation. Constitution based on the Frankfurt
Constitution of 1849. [Institutions established (e.g. Bundesrat and
Reichstag) continued throughout German Empire (from 1871)]. National
Liberal Party founded. [From 1867 to 1878 Bismark supported the Liberals:
Free trade policies]
1867 Austro-Hungarian Empire (See Wikipedia
Austria-Hungary)
1868
1869
1869 "Eisenach Party" (SAP) [South German Party] founded by Marx's German
followers (including Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel). The Eisenach
Programme adhered in general to the line of the International.
1870
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In
1870 an estate in west Netherlands was purchased by
Doctors E.
Coudewater van den Bogaert and L. Pompe of the Society for the care of the
insane. Here they established the asylum called Coudewater. See
1970.
|
14.7.1870 Ems telegram
18.7.1870 Decree of Papal Infallibility
1870-1871 FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR
Liebknecht and Bebel were imprisoned for opposing the war
19.7.1870 French declaration of war on Prussia
August: French defeats
1.9.1870: Surrender of Napoleon 3rd and MacMahon at Sedan
18.1.1871 German Empire:
Political unification of large
parts of German speaking Europe
18.1.1871: German Empire proclaimed at Versailles. Wilhelm 1st: Emperor
Bismarck: Imperial Chancellor. German Unification.
28.1.1871: Armistice
1871 (to 1878 or 1887: see below) KULTURKAMPF ("Conflict of Beliefs")
between Bismarck and Catholic Church. Prussian "Falk Laws" of May 1873
completely subordinated the church to state regimentation. Election of Pope
Leo 13th in 1878 began negotiations which restored most Catholic rights by
1887. [Palmer].
1871 Centre Party formed.
Period of boom
1872
1873
1873 Verein fur Sozialpolitik (Association for
Social-Politics?)
formed
5.6.1873
Treaty between Her Majesty [Queen Victoria] and the Sultan of
Zanzibar for the Suppression of the Slave Trade.
In the name of the Most High God.
1880
1881
Khartoum - the Congo - "Darkest Africa"
29.1.
1881 Muhammad Ahmad announced his claim to be the Mahdi so
as
to prepare the way for the second coming of the Prophet Isa (Jesus).
1883/1884 British General Charles George
Gordon accepted an offer from Leopold 2nd, King of the Belgians, to take
charge of the
Congo. However, he was then asked by the British government to
proceed to the Sudan, where he had been Governor.
13.3.
1884 Troops loyal to the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad began a siege
of
Khartoum. Charles George Gordon killed.
15,11.1884 to 26.2.1885 Berlin Conference of European powers
-
Kongokonferenz (Congo Conference) -
Afrikakonferenz (Africa Conference) -
26.1.
1885 Khartoum
fell to the Mahdists.
7.8.1885 Arrival of five German warships to intimidate the
Sultan of Zanzibar
who had protested against the activities of the
Gesellschaft
für Deutsche Kolonisation. "The
British and Germans agreed to divide
the mainland between themselves, and the Sultan had no option but to
agree".
(Wikipedia)
1885
to
1908 État indépendant du Congo
(The Congo Free State), which "was privately controlled by Leopold 2nd,
King of the Belgians through... the Association internationale
africaine." Rubber, copper and other minerals in the upper Lualaba
River basin.
(Wikipedia)
1886 to
1889 "Emin Pasha Relief Expedition" by Europeans and
Americans under Henry Morton Stanley, for the relief of Emin Pasha, General
Charles Gordon's besieged governor of Equatoria. Reported 1890 in
In Darkest Africa.
2.9.
1898 Mahdist forces defeated by British forces under Herbert
Kitchener. In 1899, Khartoum became the capital of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
1904
British Parliamentary Papers, 1904, LXII, Cd. 1933 [Roger Casement's
report] -
Wikipedia
1907 Babikir Badri (1856 - 1954), a survivor of 1898, was
given
permission to start a school for girls. He "began his secular school for
girls in a mud hut with nine of his own daughters and eight of those of his
neighbors. From this humble beginning, the Badri family has nurtured
private education in Sudan for over three generations. Babiker's son,
Yusuf, carried on his father's work, and in
1966 established the Ahfad University College for Women in
Omdurman across the Nile from Khartoum and near the site of the battle in
which Babiker had fought as a young Sudanese soldier."
March 1913 Charlotte Mew's
Men and Trees 2
"human sacrifices are still being offered by American and European
syndicates to the sacred tree of civilisation, the rubber tree.
Civilisation demands speed, speed demands rubber, and rubber, coated with
blood and slime, turns quickly into gold. We have almost forgotten the
Congo".
See
1966 Ahfad University
College for Women ["steady growth of Ahfad Institutions through the 1970s
and 1980s"]
1982 Ahfad University
College National Committee formed to make plans and raise funds for a new
campus and library.
1983 Arabicization
1989 Islamic legal code
1991: New library
1995 Ahfad University for
Women
2015 Badri women are
strong
|
1882
1882-1884 Famine in what became
Kenya. A smallpox epidemic broke out at Sagalla and quickly
spread across the country. Another epidemic occurred during famine in 1898.
It also hit Nyanza Province in 1899,
1909 and 1915.
1883
1884
1885
Sociology in Germany
"Following an interest in German thought,"
[Albion] "Small went on to study history, social economics and
social politics at the universities of Berlin (1879-1880) and Leipzig
(1880-1881). He also spent some time at Weimar and at the British Museum in
London. His experiences in Europe subsequently shaped his writings as a
sociologist"
(external source)
Georg Simmel (1858-1918) taught at the University of Berlin as a
Privatdozent from 1885 to 1901, and then as
Ausserordentlicher Professor to 1914, when he was appointed
Professor at the University of Strasbourg.
[Simmel's] "courses ranged from logic and the history of
philosophy to ethics, social psychology, and sociology. He lectured on
Kant, Schopenhauer, Darwin, and Nietzsche, among many others. Often during
a single academic year he would survey new trends in sociology as well as
in metaphysics"
(Lewis Coser External Link)
1900
Georg Simmel Philosophy of Money. From 1900
he "devoted himself for over a decade primarily to the fledgling discipline
of sociology. At that point there were still no chair of sociology in
Germany"
(Lloyd Spencer) -
weblinks
1908
Georg Simmel's Sociologie attempted an analysis,
classification and interpretation of several forms of social
relations, such as isolation, contact, superordination, subordination,
opposition, persistence or continuity of social group, social
differentiation, and integration. Sociologie incorporated previous
studies such Über soziale Differenzierung - Das Problem der
Sociologie - Comment les formes sociales se maintennent.
|
|
Carl Peters (or Karl) (27.9.1856-10.9.1918) founded the
Gesellschaft für Deutsche Kolonisation (Society for German
Colonization) in March 1884. - See
East Africa
1885 Declaration of a German protectorate in the Africa Great Lakes
region.
Lutheran and Moravian missionaries began to
arrive from Germany. They took over the work of British Missions.
1886 Evangelische Mission nach Deutsch Ostafrika. From
1891 it was led by Friedrich von Bodelschwingh, Senior of the Bethel
Institution. See Lutindi
|
British and allied troops effectively controlled East Africa from October
1916, but the German forces kept fighting until
November 1918. The
larger part of German East Africa became Tanganyika Territory administered
by
the British from 20.7.1922.
1886
6.6.1886
Hans Prinzhorn
born in Hemer, Westphalia. After studying art history and philosophy (Ph.D.
Vienna
1908) he trained as a singer. He then qualified as a doctor and
became a psychiatrist. From 1919 to
1921 he built up a
Museum for Pathological Art at
Heildelberg. His
Bildnerei der Geisteskranken (Artistry of the
Mentally Ill) in 1922 made comparisons with the art
of children, "primitives" and contemporary art.
died
14.6.1933
1887
1888
1889
1890
22.1.1891
Antonio Gramsci born. See
1926 -
1929 -
1934 - death:
1937 -
1957
19.12.1891
Carl Schneider born in Gembitz im Kreis Mogilno, Posen.
In 1926, he published an article on
psychology and psychiatry and in 1930 a book on
The Psychology of
schizophrenics, In this he said he sought to overcome
"therapeutic nihilism". He joined the Nazi party on 1.5.1932. In October
1933 he took over the
Heidelberg
Clinic. Under him the research and courses offered by the clinic
was narrowed to racial hygiene and genetic biology related topics. He was
recruited to the
T4 Programme autumn 1939 as one of its top evaluaters of who
should be killed in the "euthanasia" programme. (At least 200,000 patients
were killed under this programme). With funds from the "euthanasia
center", Carl Schneider led from 1942 a research program to differentiate
the various forms of "idiocy" and epilepsy. As part of this, some (21?)
children examined at the Heidelberg Clinic were then sent to the
Kinderfachabteilung (Childrens department) at the Eichberg state clinic
(asylum), where they were killed with the intention of having their brains
returned to Heidelberg for research.
1892
1893
In 1893 the Imperial British East Africa Company transferred its
administration rights of territory consisting mainly of Buganda Kingdom to
the British Government. In 1894 the Uganda Protectorate was established,
and the territory was extended beyond the borders of Buganda to an area
that roughly corresponds to that of present-day Uganda.
(Wikipedia) - Typewritten postage stamps (1895) developed into
printed ones for the Uganda Protectorate, but from 1903 stamps were for
East Africa and Uganda, then Kenya and Uganda (1922-1927) and then Kenya,
Uganda and Tanganyika/Tanzania (1935-1976). See
British East Africa
.
Prison asylums 1920s -
1967 -
Mental Health Uganda 1997
1894
1895 Plantesamfund published by Johannes Eugenius
Bülow
Warming (1841-1924), professor of botany and director of the botanical
garden at the university of Copenhagen (1185-1911)
Previously (1882-1885) professor of botany at the Royal Institute of
Technology in Stockholm -
(Wikipedia -
biographical sketch)
Plantesamfund was translated into German in 1896 as
Lehrbuch der Ökologischen Pflanzengeographie. An extended version of
this was translaated into English in 1909 as
Oecology of Plants; An Introduction to the Study of Plant-
Communities
"In this work Warming developed the notion of the plant
community, relating this unifying concept to more particular conditions of
plant physiognomy and adaptation, and to varying substrates and moisture
regimes. Through this book Warming effectively invented the field of plant
ecology, also establishing a new foundation for the ecological side of
plant geography studies"
(External source)
Henry Cowles
learnt Danish in order to read Warming
Arthur Tansley
learnt German in 1894 and read Warming in German. This reading gave
him the ecological framework of thought.
[See
Burgess 1925]
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1896
1896/1897
In Lutindi (in the Usambara Mountain), in what is now in Korogwe, Tanga,
Tanzania, the German
"Bethel Mission" (Lutheran) established a slave sanctuary
for children who had been freed from slavery. With the decline of slavery
Lutindi developed as a school and orphanage. Asylum established
1904
1896.
Adolf Meyer's visit to
Emil Kraepelin at
the
Heidelberg Clinic
- See books
1897
1898
1899
Colonial lunatic asylums
About 1900: Of the British empire's 74 colonial lunatic asylums, 21
are in
India (or British Asia), six in
South Africa, one in Sierra Leone
(Kissy Lunatic Asylum 1820); one in Gold Coast (Accra, 1887). Yaba close to
Lagos (Nigeria) opened in 1907 and
Nairobi
(Kenya) in 1910. In the German
Africa, missionaries opened an asylum in
Lutindi Tanganiyka (Tanzania) in
1905.
In the
Dutch East
Indies
there were three asylums on Java (Surabaya, 1876;
Buitenzorg close to Batavia, 1881, and Lawan in 1902. From 1897 The Dutch
East Indies had comprehensive lunacy legislation, similar to the law in
Holland and France.
Folie et ordre colonial.
Les difficultés de mise en place d'une assistance
psychiatrique au Sénégal et en Afrique occidentale
René Collignon, Paris, CNRS. available as a pdf or
view as html (no longer available)
In South Africa, "The Mental Disorders Act was introduced in 1916.
No provision was
made for neurotic and personality disorders, alcohol dependence or learning
disability. When the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910, there
were eight mental institutions caring for 3624 patients. In 1955
there were 13 government mental hospitals and 17 881 patients. Today there
are 24 registered public psychiatric hospitals, accommodating some 14 000
acute and long-term care patients." (
"Focus on psychiatry in South Africa" Robin Emsley,
The British Journal of Psychiatry (2001) 178: 382-386)
|
1901
1902
1903
1903: Due to
poor therapeutic conditions, including overcrowding, at the
Heidelberg Clinic and better research facilities at Munich,
Kraepelin moved to Munich.
28.7.1903 Ernest William Hens Bohle born
Bradford, Yorkshire West Riding. 24.6.1904 Certificate of
Naturalisation for Hermann Bohle [4.10.1876-12.7.1943] 14 Bertram Road,
Bradford, a subject of Germany, having been born at Bergneustadt; the son
of Friederick Wilhelm and Ida Bohle, both subjects of Germany. Twenty Seven
years old a lecturer and teacher of science and electrical engineering.
Married [to Antonie, née Knode] Three children:
Hermine Johhnna Bohle aged six years [about 1898] - Anne Maria Bohle aged
five years [about 1899] -
Ernest William Hans aged 9 months
[Had reside in UK at least five years during the last eight and intended to
stay.] - Harry (Heinrich) Bohle was born about 1907. There may have been
another sister called Johanna - The family went to South Africa in 1906 -
1931/1933:
Auslands Organisation -
1938 Kristallnacht -
January 1939 Greene-Bohle letters -
14.2.1904
"The first comprehensive law on mental health in Italy dates back to 1904.
At that time, the mental hospital was regarded as the cornerstone of the
care system, 'admitting individuals with all types of mental disorders of
any cause whatsoever, when they were dangerous to themselves or the others
or were prone to public scandal' (Legge n. 36, 1904). Admission to a mental
hospital could be requested by anyone 'in the interest of the patient or
the society' (Legge n. 36, 1904) and even by the police on the basis of a
medical certificate. The police soon became the most common source of
referral since most admissions took place under emergency conditions.
Admissions were compulsory, might last indefinitely and implied the loss of
civil and political rights. Each province was responsible for the local
provision and organisation of mental health care and set up its own mental
hospital, which was kept apart from the general health care system."
Piccinelli, Politi and Barale 2002
28.5.1904 Walter Ritter von Baeyer born, Munich. See
1964
Died: 26.6.1987 Heidelberg
1930 picture
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1904
"Kolonialirrenanstalt" (colonial insane (irren) asylum (anstalt))
Lutindi, the "Klein-Bethel Ostafrikas" (Little Bethel East
Africa) built to plans by the architect
Karl Siebold. Friedrich Wilhelm Bokermann (1867-1947), Lutindi's
lead missionary, is said to have suggested the transformation.
(But see
Snyder 2013). In 1914, the
asylum had 86 patients.
|
Treatment focused on outdoor work in the coffee and banana fields (men) and
the vegetable garden (women). Weaker members exercised in the courtyard. No
corporal punishment was allowed, but handcuffs and straitjackets were used,
especially in the early years. Potassium bromide used in epilepsy,
replacing sedatives and hypnotics such as chloral hydrate. There was an
attempt to initiate a family care system. "By World War the work was only
briefly interrupted". See
1921. "In
1927 and then again in 1951 came
the Bethel missionaries back to Lutindi". A government lunatic asylum was
opened
at Dodoma in the 1920s
Treaties with the Masai in 1904 and 1911 gave the British
government huge tracts of land in central Kenya which became
the larger part of the "White Highlands."
1904 A small pox isolation centre established in
Mathari, Nairobi,
Kenya. Redesigned as Nairobi Lunatic Asylum in 1910.
Known as Mathari Lunatic Asylum. Renamed Mathari Mental Hospital
16.9.1924 -
James Cobb
and other psychiatrists - See
McCulloch1995 -
Njenga 2002 -
Wikipedia -
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
about 1909 The Heidelberg Clinic assembled a teaching collection
of
patient's art.
1910
17.2.1911 Birth of a double agent?
Joachim Benemann born Hamburg, Germany, port on the Elbe just
south of Denmark.
Said to have been very close to the
Communist Party in the early 1930s while employed in Moscow. First went to
the United Kingdom
25.8.1931. Came to
England 8.12.1933 and
left
11.2.1934.
In 1934 and
1935 he worked in the United Kingdom under Otto Bene of the
German Embassy
arranging boys camps for members of the
Hitler Youth
and English boys. In December
1935 he was in Germany, trying to link the Hitler Youth with the
British Scouts.
In
1936 and
1937 he arranged camps in Germany and the United Kingdom.
In 1937 he returned to study at London University
and to develop the Hitler Youth in the UK.
Organised
cycling tours and gliding, which thought possibly a cover for
espionage. He played a key role in a
tea party for Baden Powell (Scouts) and Rose Kerr (Guides) at
the German Embassy in London.
Became a member of the Nazi Party in April 1938 [??]. Party
number 5518162. Left the UK in
1939. [He was on a list of people who should be interned]. In
Second World War he worked for the Communist-influenced Resistance in
Denmark. [Which may indicate that Hamburg, where he was born,
had remained
a base for him]. He returned to England after the war and married an
English woman.
His anti-Nazi affiliations were investigated when he applied unsuccesfully
for British naturalisation in 1953. He died in Devon, aged 95, in 2007.
1913
1913 Mulago Hospital, Kampala, Uganda founded by Albert Ruskin Cook.
- Wikipedia -
See Hoima.
|
Sometime in 1914, a citizens' university was established at Frankfurt in
Germany, by wealthy Frankfurt citizens, including prominent businesspeople,
scholars, and philanthropists. Carl Grünberg founded the
Institut für Sozialforschung there in
1923. The university was re-named the Johann Wolfgang Goethe-
Universität in 1932.
Nazification in
1933. In
1950 the Institut fü Sozialforschung returned
to Frankfurt from its exile in the USA
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|
Max Beckmann
(1884-1950).
Irrenhaus (Madhouse)
1918.
Drypoint on laid paper
It comes from a series called Gesichter (faces)
|
1918 Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic.
In 1795 Polish lands had been partitioned between Prussia, Russia
and Austria.
25.11.1918 Formal surrender of the German forces in East Africa to
the British drawn by an African artist whose name has been lost.
1919
A sociology department established in the Law Faculty at the University of
Warsaw.
1919 A Museum for Pathological Art authorised at the
Heidelberg Clinic (one room).
Hans Prinzhorn (supported by Karl Wilmanns) built up the
collection. In 1921 it staged an exhibition at Frankfurt's Gallery Zinglers
Kabinett, which then moved to Gallery Garvens in Hannover.
1919Partito
Nazionale
Fascisto formed in Italy. In power 1922 to 1943.
THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC - GERMANY
The Weimar Republic started with the election of a National Assembly on
19.1.1919 (Or established 11.8.1919). Friederich Ebert of the SPD was
German President from 11.2.1919 to 28.2.1925 - Government by decree began
29.3.1930
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5.1.1919 to 12.1.1919 Spartacist Uprising. Ebert used troops to
suppress an uprising led by the Spartacus League and the Independent Social
Democrats in Berlin. Luxemburg and Liebknecht were arrested by the troops
and murdered.
5.1.1919 Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (German Workers' Party) (D.A.P.)
formed by Anton Drexler, a virulent anit-Semite.
January 1919 Founding conference of the Third International (the
Communist
International) - meant an external influence on policies of the KPD and
other communist parties outside the USSR.
15.4.1919
Save the Children Fund was founded in London as an effort to alleviate
starvation of children in Germany and Austria-Hungary during the
Allied blockade of Germany, which continued after the Armistice.
28.6.1919 Treaty of Versailles ended the
state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. Germany to
pay reparations.
15.10.1919:
The ABC of Communism
1920
9.10.1921
J. Spittles and his wife, C. M. Spittles, became Superintendent and Matron
of Lutindi
Lunatic Asylum. The asylum had 86 patients on
31.12.1921. 21 new patients were admitted in 1921. Nine patients
died and six died.
"With the exception of thirteen men and six women, who are necessary as
attendants, and to take charge of tools, stores, etc., all work was
performed by patients. Work undertaken was cultivation of fields, care of
stock, making and repairing clothing, all necessary repairs to buildings
and building new drains and latrines in male and female wards."
Miss B. G. Allardes, Nursing Sister. C. A. Patel, Fourth Grade Clerk.
(P.M.O.'s Office). D. B. Somvasi, Fourth Grade Clerk, J. B. da Cunha,
Third Grade Clerk. (P.M.O.'s Office
There was no serious casualty during the year. One patient required
forcible feeding for three weeks. One man with hydrocele was
57
tapped four times during the year. One female suffering from Syphilis
was sent to Tanga Hospital for injections. The treatment was successful.
The rate for each patient per day was cents 6o (Shg.) It has since
been found that it can be reduced cents 10 per day, resulting in a saving
of shillings 240/- per month.
Besides the aboveś a small asylum sufficient to accommodate
six lunatics has been erected at Tabora.
The building of a large Central Lunatic Asylum is contemplated
in the near future.
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"Communism equals the power of the Soviets
plus electrification of the whole country"
1920 Florian Znaniecki (15.1.1882 -) became the (first) Professor of
Sociology at the University in Poznan, in Poland. There he organized the
Polish Sociological Institute (Polski Instytut Socjologii)
and began publishing The Polish Sociological Review (Polski
Przeglad Socjologiczny). [See
1946 and
1957]
(Wikipedia)
Early 1920 Deutsche Arbeiterpartei became Nationalsozialistische
Deutsche Arbeiterpartei. Adolph Hitler, its propaganda officer, drafted a
twenty five point party programme that became the permanent basis for the
party.
13.3.1920. Kapp Putsch (Counter-Revolutionary)
1921
About 1921 [Possibly 1920]
(Benjamin) Ben Greene (28.12.1901
- October 1978) joined the
Quakers, left Oxford University and went, on a Nansen Pass
(Save the
Children Fund Pass), with Quaker Relief Work in Germany, Poland,
Czeco-
Slovakia and Russia. He was in Russia on famine relief work for 18 months.
Probably returned towards the
end of 1923. In 1935 he was deputy chief returning officer of
the
Saar Plebiscite, after which he gave a lecture on his
experiences
expressing sympathy with German ideals and aspirations.. See
1936 Berkhamsted -
1938 change of allegiance -
1938 Kristallnacht -
January 1939 Greene-Bohle letters -
1939 British People's
Party. Greene was detained under Regulation 18B on 23.5.1940
because
of his German sympathies ("hostile associations"), but was released in
1942. After the war, his
views on the British constitution were published the nationalist
Candour which supported the
League of Empire Loyalists. His daughter,
Leslie, was the secretary of the League and a founder of the
National Front
in 1967.
MI5
-
Wikipedia. Ben Greene (1902-1978), his mother (Eva 1884-1979)
and wife Leslie (1899-1989) are buried in the burial ground of Leiston
Quaker Meeting House in Suffolk.
March 1921 "March Action" of workers and KPD in Germany. Abortive.
1922
Stalin
GERMANY
1922-1923 FINANCIAL COLLAPSE AND RUNAWAY INFLATION
1923
January 1923 to Summer 1925 French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr
to secure reparations.
October 1923 "The German October" and "Hamburg Uprising": abortive
communist revolutions.
8-9.11.1923 Bierkeller Putsch, Münchener Putsch or Hitlerputsch.
The publicity of Hitler's trial gave momentum to the Völkischer Block,
an
alliance of racist organisations, which became the third largest party in
the Bavarian parliament. Confined in Landsberg Castle, Hitler dictated the
first part of Mein Kampf (My Struggle) to Rudolph Hess:
|
19.8.1923 The First Agricultural and Crafts Exhibition opened in
Moscow. The Exhibition appears to have been a showcase for the Societ Union
but is said to have emphasised international aspects of the display and to
have attracted foreign businesses wanting to exhibit their products. Lenin
toured exhibition in October 19234, despite being extremely sick.
(about the exhibition)
Ben Greene probably returned to England towards the end of 1923.
He came
home via Moscow, St Petersburg, Helsinki, Bergen and Newcastle. At the
Moscow Trade Fair he admired the "proud flag of Italian fascism", but had
less
time for that flown by "that parody of the German republic". 29.10.1924:
unsuccessful Labour Party candidate for Basingstoke in the General
Election.
He married in London in March 1925.
1924
May June 1924. Pravda published Joseph Stalin's lectures on The
Foundations of Leninism
(External link to Peking edition). Lecture 9 on
"Style in Work" explains that "The combination of Russian revolutionary
sweep with
American efficiency is the essence of Leninism in Party and
state work"
1924-1929 A DEGREE OF POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC STABILITY IN GERMANY
1925-1933 Field Marshal von Hindenberg President of Germany
1925 Adolf
Hitler's Mein
Kampf (First volume).
Promoting the
hierarchic Fürer-state, aryan supremacy, anti-semitism and
expansionist
Lebensraum (living-space) ideas.
|
Gwynneth and her husband Donald Latham (a young doctor)
arrived in Tanganyika.
Her diaries include description of visit to
Lutindi and reference
to the planned asylum at Dodoma.
3.9.1925
Report by His Britannic Majesty's Government
on the
Administration under Mandate
of Tanganyika Territory for the year 1924
Société des Nations - League of Nations
Genève 1925 Geneva
"A certain number of lunatics are confined at the Lunatic Asylum at
Lutindi, but the
Asylum is situated in a remote district and the
accommodation available is inadequate for the needs of the Territory. It
is necessary at present to confine criminal and other lunatics in
ordinary gaols. This is most undesirable and the erection of a
Central Lunatic Asylum at Dodoma to accommodate both criminal
and civil lunatics is
about to be commenced. A small
asylum and gaol for criminal lepers will also be erected at
Dodoma."
Zygmunt Bauman was born on 19.11.1925 in Poznan, Poland. His
parents
were non practising Jews.
Janina Lewinson was born on 18.8.1926 in Warsaw. She remained in
Poland
when Germany invaded.
When Germany and Russia invaded Poland in
1939, Zygmunt escaped to the Russian zone.
Later he served in a Polish military unit under Russian control.
"he was a teenager when the Germans invaded. His family caught
the last train east to Russia. When he was old enough he joined the Fourth
Division of the Polish exile army in Russia - with whom he entered
Poland."
Bauman says he was a "communist" from
1946 to 1967. When he was 19
he joined the Polish Secret Service, for three years.
(1945 to
1948)
From 1945 to
1953 Bauman was a political instructor in the Internal Security
Corps (KBW), a military unit formed to combat Ukrainian nationalist
insurgents and part of the remnants of the Polish Home Army.
At some point after the war Bauman became a
student of sociology at
Warsaw University.
March 1948: Janina Lewinson met Zygmunt Bauman at Warsaw University. They
became engaged very shortly afterwards.
Zygmunt taught at Warsaw University from
1954 to
1968,
Zygmunt studied for a year in
the late 1950s at London
School of Economics.
He published in Polish in
1959 -
1960 -
1961 -
1962 -
1964 -
Zygmunt became Professor of
General Sociology in 1964.
He published in Polish in
1965 and
1966.
An anti-semitic purge in
1968 meant that
Zygmunt and Janina lost their jobs.
Bauman taught at the
University of Tel Aviv from 1968 to
1970,
at the
University of Leeds from 1972 to
1990. Modernity and The Holocaust, published in
1989, was
influenced by the recollections of a Warsaw childhood published by his
wife, Janina, in
1986.
|
1926
|
9.11.1926 The Fascist government enacted a new wave of emergency
laws, taking as a pretext an alleged attempt on Mussolini's life several
days earlier. The fascist police arrested
Gramsci, despite his
parliamentary immunity, and brought him to the Rome prison Regina Coeli.
|
1927
1926 or 1927 Mirembe Asylum built in
Dodoma, by the British
colonial
administration to serve the whole of the
Tanganyika Territory. -
Wikipedia -
facebook -
partnership.
"The hospital was founded in 1926, originated from an orphanage, and was
originally used for patients with malaria and fever (and associated
confusion) to absorb. Now it is a National Referral Hospital for Mental
Health. The only psychiatric hospital in Tanzania, but there are still
patients with physical illnesses, such as HIV / AIDS, malaria,
tuberculosis, etc. There are 700 beds, of which 250 forensic places. There
are five divisions: Mirembe for ordinary patients (about 500), Isanga for
forensic examination and Mirembe annex is an intermediate form of these
two.Hombolo is a kind of small town where patients can live as they have
nowhere else to go, and where they can live their own farming business with
chickens, goats, cows and agriculture such as corn. If there is a 5th part
Nurses Training related to hospital (with 25 students) .. The treatment is
free or based on 50% cost sharing. That is determined by a Social Worker.
The management did their policies well, but they are just not able to
deliver. Every care to 100% They just make do with what they have and they
were very positive. They hope that the situation would improve".
(Fortune of Africa)
1927 German missionaries return to
Lutindi. Heinrich
Waltenberg (born 1902) arrived in 1930 as Pastor. He and his wife,
Hildegard Waltenberg, were interred as enemy aliens at the start of World
War two, but then commissioned by the Tanganyika Government to head the
Lutindi Mental Hospital during the War.
1928
4.6.1928
Antonio Gramsci sentenced (with other Italian Communist
leaders) to 20 years, 4 months and 5 days in prison. Sent to a prison in
Turi, in the province of Bari, which turned out to be his longest place of
detention (June 1928 -- November 1933).
1929-
1935
Antonio Gramsci's
Prison Notebooks written
From
Nsereko 2013:
Mental health services in Uganda started in Hoima prison in the 1920s.
[Hoima Prison built 1930s?]. In 1934-1936, a ward at
Mulago hospital
was opened to receive mental health patients from Hoima. "In 1940,
the remaining batch of patients in Hoima was transferred to Mulago in the
legendary ward 16". See
Butabika
From Maling 2015:
1920s: Confinement in Prison Asylums.
1935: Patients were transferred from Hoima to Mulago in Kampala
1954: Butabika Hospital was built,
1960: Butabika School of Psychiatric Nursing established
1962 Butabika Hospital expanded
1964: Mental Treatment Act (1964).
1970: Out Patient Department (ward 16) started at Mulago Hospital
1970s: Mental health units in large Regional Referral Hospitals (OPD & in-
patient services offered)
1979 PCO school was opened by Prof. Bbosa
1930
Alfred Rosenberg's The Myth of the 20th Century
Heidelberg:
1930
"Foundations laid for the New University
1933-1939 59 of
the 214 teaching staff deprived of their posts in the National Socialist
era
1945
Gradual resumption of teaching (15 August); first rector: Karl
Heinrich Bauer (Medicine); Collegium Academicum established
1962 Opening of
the interdisciplinary South Asia Institute
1962
Establishment of the Cancer
Research Centre (from 1972: German Cancer Research Centre)
1964 Opening of
the University hospital complex in Mannheim (1969: Faculty of Clinical
Medicine, Mannheim)
1969 New constitution for
the University: 16 Faculties
instead of 5
1986 600th anniversary of Heidelberg University with Gisbert
zu Pulitz as rector
1994
The Faculty of Medicine is the largest in Germany;
the University now has 15 Faculties"
(source)
1931
1.5.1931 Auslands (Foreign) Organisation of the NSDAP (Nazi Party)
founded at Hamburg "upon suggestion of some Germans abroad".
Ernst Wilhelm Bohle became a volunteer assistant in December
1931 and joined the Party on 1.3.1932. On 8 May 1933 he became leader On
account of my experience and my connections abroad -- I was born in England
and raised in South Africa.
(Nuremberg Proceedings). About 1937 two
relatives of Ernst Wilhelm were listed working for the Auslands
Organisation in the Amt für Technik (Office for technology). Im
Germany:
Heinrich Bohle "Bruder von Ernst Wilhelm Bohle" and in South
Africa
Hermann Bohle "Vater des Gauleiters Bohle"
25.8.1931 When
Joachim Benemann arrived in the
United
Kingdom, he had already worked in Italy (under
Mussolini), Russia (under
Stalin), and Scandanavia.
14.9.1931 Second Spanish Republic proclaimed
9.12.1931 Constitution adopted
|
1932
Antonio Gramsci's
Notebook 12 contains "Notes on the History of Intellectuals" 3
Notes
1932: A project for exchanging political prisoners (including Gramsci)
between Italy and the Soviet Union failed
"By chance in the mid-1930s promethazine, a compound with
antihistamine
(anti-allergy) properties from a group called
phenothiazines, was shown in
France to calm people who were suffering from delusions, hallucinations, or
similar conditions (collectively called psychoses). A related compound
chlorpromazine was synthesized by the French company
Rhône-Poulenc in
1950?
and Henri Laborit, a surgeon, tried it to decrease anxiety before surgery.
Noting the calming effect of this drug on his patients, he suggested that
it might be useful in treating mental illness."
(Flanagan, R.J.
2002)
"Après découverte du rôle de l'histamine dans les
allergies, le laboratoire Rhône-Poulenc cherche à
développer dès 1933 des "anti-histaminiques", les
chimistes
synthétisent donc en
1947 un dérivé
phénothiazinique, la prométhazine, qui possède,
des
propriétés sédatives marquées. En
1948, le
chirurgien Pierre Huguenard l'utilise dans un cocktail lytique pour
provoquer sédation et indifférence chez les
opérés, et Henri Laborit, un autre chirurgien, cherche
à prévenir le choc opératoire, et soupçonne un
effet
"stabilisant" du Système Nerveux Central (SNC) pouvant créer
une hibernation artificielle et une sédation sans narcose, il
demande alors au laboratoire Rhône-Poulenc de travailler sur des
composés aux propriétés stabilisante plus
marquées, ce qui permet la création de la chlorpromazine."
Wikipedia
|
30.1.1933
Nationalsozialist party in power in Germany
around 25.2.1933 Nazi commissar for Frankfurt announced. "Frankfurt
was the
first university the Nazis tackled, precisely because it was the
most self-confidently liberal of major German universities,"
Peter Drucker
Karl Wilmanns (1873-1945), director of the University Hospital of
Psychiatry at
Heidelberg was forced to leave his post. Carl Schneider (1891-
11.12.1946), a National Socialist, was appointed in his place.
7.4.1933 Bertha Bracey became Secretary of the Quaker "Germany
Emergency Committee" which held its first meeting on 12.4.1933
and started functioning in Berlin in October 1933.
It was later renamed the Friends Committee for Refugees and Aliens.
1934
Antonio Gramsci's
Notebook 22
contains
"Americanism and
Fordism" (16 Notes)
In 1934 Gramsci gained conditional freedom on health grounds, after
visiting hospitals in Civitavecchia, Formia and Rome.
1934 Hitler named Joachim von Ribbentrop Special Commissioner for
Disarmament. In August 1934 Ribbentrop founded the Büro
Ribbentrop (later the Dienststelle Ribbentrop), linked to the Nazi Party,
which functioned as an alternative foreign ministry. See
Deutsch-
Englische Gesellschaft -
Ambassador -
Ribbentrop Bohle
1937 -
Foreign Minister 1938
1934 Intercepted letters
Joachim Benemann,
generally relating to Hitler Youth. Spring: From Kurt Weitbrecht in Hamburg
to England. July from Benemann in Hamburg to Otto Bene. He is returning to
England 11.7.1934. Negotiations with the Scouts are under way. He wishes to
enlist sympathy in British Public Schools.
1935
1935 Carrel, A. (1935) L'Homme, cet Inconnu. Paris: Plon. -
See
Wikipedia
Dr Alexis Carrel, a Nobel prizewinner [Physiology, 1912 -
external link
and an extreme advocate of eugenic
measures, believing that "families where there exists syphilis, cancer,
tuberculosis, neurosis and feeble-mindedness are more dangerous than those
of thieves and assassins" (J.L.T. Birley 2002, translating from l'Homme,
cet inconnu)
Alexis Carrel,
l'Homme, cet
inconnu:
"Quant aux autres, ceux qui ont tué, qui ont volé
à main
armée, qui ont enlevé des enfants, qui ont
dépouillé les pauvres, qui ont gravement trompé la
confiance du public, un établissement euthanasique, pourvu de gaz
appropriés, permettrait d'en disposer de façon humaine et e
conomique. Le même traitement ne
serait-il pas applicable aux fous qui ont commis des actes criminels ? Il
ne faut pas hésiter à ordonner la socié moderne par
rapport à l'individu sain. Les systèmes philosophiques et les
préjugés
sentimentaux doivent disparaître devant cette
nécessité.
Après tout, c'est le développement de la personnalité
humaine qui est le but suprême de la civilisation " (Taken from
Les archives de l'Humanité
-
archive)
As for the others, those who killed, who fled at gun-point, who
removed children, who stripped the poor, who seriously misled the public,
an establishment for euthanasia, equipped with appropriate gases, would
allow
them to be removed in a human and economic way.
Should not the same treatment be applied to the insane who have done
criminal acts? We should not hesitate to create a modern society that one
can compare to the healthy individual. The philosophical systems and the
sentimental prejudices must disappear in front of this need. After all, it
is the development of the human personality which is the supreme goal of
civilisation
|
early 1935
Wolfgang Huber born - See
1964 -
1966 -
1968 -
1970 -
1971 -
1973 -
1995 ruprecht -
1998 -
2001 list of dates -
2006 -
2007 -
30.12.1934 News photograph about
Ben Greene
being appointed Deputy Chief Returning Officer for the Saar Plebiscite.
13.1.1935 A plebiscite held in the Saar territory, which was the
only part of Germany still under foreign occupation following World War I.
90.8%, voted to re-join the German Reich. 8.8% wanted to remain under
British and French occupation under a League of Nations mandate. 0.4%
wanted to join France. The main reason why 8.8% voted to remain occupied
was tat they did not wish to be ruled by Nazis.
11.4.1935 A broadcast (BBC?) made by
Joachim Benemann.
MI5 sent information
about him to the UK Home Office and Foreign Office. Shortly after a letter
from Lotte Wolff, Croydon was intercepted sayingthat organisation of
Benemann's camps was continuing despite his return to Germany. Leslie Wood
working as his representative in England. They are about to found an Anglo-
German circle.
2.12.1935 The Deutsch-Englische Gesellschaft founded by
Ribbentrop. It was a
sister organisation to the Anglo-German Fellowship.
The Deutsch-Englische Kreis (German-English Circle) was the youth
organisation of the Deutsch-Englische Gesellschaf, which organised youth
camps. The organisations were disbanded when war broke out in
1939.
|
26.12.1935 to 5.1.1936
Anglo-German Camp near Berchtesgaden for the
winter sports. At this camp a programme for 1936 will be drawn up.
6.2.1936 to 16.2.1936 Winter Olympics
Garmisch-Partenkirchen in Bavaria, Germany. The last year in which the
Summer and Winter Games were both held in the same country
|
17.7.1936 Spanish Civil War
1.4.1939 Fall of the Republic
|
Sometime 1936 A camp organised at Berkhamsted School in
Hertfordshire.
Joachim Benemann, the organiser, stayed as the guest of the
headmaster (Cuthbert Machell Cox from 1931 to 1946). At sometime during
the camp he was in hospital. MI5 files mention "Unser Lager,
published by the
Anglo-German Circle, of which the parent organisation is
the Deutsch-Englisher Kreis. J. Benemann is head of the German
organisation" [Benemann worked with
Ben Greene
, whose uncle was Charles
Henry Greene (father of Graham Greene), who was headmaster of Berkhamsted
from 1911 to 1927)]
1.8.1936:
Berlin Olympic Games opened
August 1936
Ribbentrop appointed Ambassador to the United Kingdom with
orders to negotiate an Anglo-German alliance. He arrived to take up his
position in October 1936
1937
1937: Martin Niemoller arrested by the Gestapo. Eventually sent to
Sachsenhausen and then to Dachau. Moved in 1945 to the Tirol.
January 1937 Church and State in Germany. The
attitude of the National Socialist Party and the German government towards
Christianity by Baron Friedrich von der Ropp.
(Service Volume 8, Number 1)
2.3.1937 Orange Street meeting of the Civil Service Christian Union
with
Baron Friedrich von der Ropp.
27.4.1937 Death of
Antonio Gramsci, at the "Quisisana" Hospital in Rome (46years
old). His ashes are buried in the Protestant Cemetery there.
External
link (deceased) to
John M. Cammett's 1998 bibliography which includes a
bibliography of translations from the Italian into other languages.
25.5.1937 Musée de l'Homme founded in
Paris.
19.7.1937
Exhibition of Entartete Kunst
(Degenerate Art), organized by Adolf Ziegler and the Nazi Party,
opens in Munich.
30.9.1937 Press photograph of
Ribbentrop, the German
ambassador, with
Ernst Bohle, the leader of
the foreign organisation of the Nazi party, at Croydon airport. Bohl was
visiting Britain to speak at a harvest festival meeting of German Nazi's at
the Porchester Hall in Paddington, London, a hall that had been used by the
Nazis since 1934. Bohle coming from Germany meant a large attendance was
expected. Brendan Bracken, conservative MP for North Paddington and a
Winston Churchill's supporter protested strongly at the hall being used.
The council were assured the meeting would be orderly, especially as the
Ambassador was to be present.
1937 James Cobb succeeded H.L. Gordon in charge of
Mathari. Succeeded by John
Colin Dixon Carothers (1903-1989). James Cobb publicly had sexual
intercourse with large animals.
1938
4.2.1938
Ribbentrop
succeeded Konstantin von Neurath as German Foreign Minister
19.7.1938? Düsseldorf speech by
Carl Schneider on the first
anniversary of the
Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) exhibition.
He attributed the "successful cure" of a "schizophrenic artist"
who had "already produced pathological works" to the following measures:
"We (did) the opposite to what ...
Lombroso,
Prinzhorn and
others had done. Instead of saving the woman's morbid works we destroyed
them, and guided her while she went about her normal, self-allotted tasks."
29.9.1938 and 30.9.1938
Munich and "giving way" to Hitler.
September 1938
Ben Greene
resigned from the Labour Party because he was in favour of Chamberlain's
policy of peace with Hitler and the Labour Party opposed it. He worked for
the Peace Pledge Union before going to Germany after Kristallnacht.
7.11.1938 A Polish-Jewish student, Herschel Grynszpan, shot a German
diplomat, Ernst vom Rath, in Paris. Ernst vom Rath died 9.11.1938.
Kristallnacht was organised as reprisals.
9/10.11.1938
Kristallnacht
(Night of Crystal). Night of broken glass. Anti-Jewish pogrom initiated by
Joseph Goebbels, Minister of Propaganda, and
the Sturmabteilung (SA) (Sturmtruppen - Storm Troopers). Ninety-one Jews
were killed, hundreds seriously injured. About 7,500 Jewish businesses were
gutted and an estimated 177 synagogues burned or otherwise demolished.
[Hermann Göring led the economic despoliation of the Jews in Germany
and
the territories Germany occupied. (Encyclopedia Britannica)]
12.11.1938 Speech by Hermann Göring (Hitler's second in
command) proposed
ghettos as a means of concentrating and controlling the Jews.
12/13.11.1938 Decrees confiscated the major part of Jewish wealth
and
imposed a fine of one million marks on the Jewish community.
Ben Greene in Germany.
He went on behalf of the
Germany Emergency Committee
, travelling out via Amsterdam, where he met the Dutch Prime
Minister (discussing passage of Jews through Holland if the United Kingdom
should allow them in). John Scanlon (Daily Express then Oswald Mosley
journalist) gave Greene contact details for
Ernst-Wilhem Bohl and Harry Bohl
1939
1.1.1939 Letter addressed to
Herrn H. Bohle, Berlin, W8, Krausen St
W1 from
Ben Greene in Berkhamstead (Telephone Berkhamstead 1), who will
follow Bohle's advice to postpone going to Germany until after he has seen
him in London.
29.8.1939 A reply letter to "Dear Ben" from "Bohle" 30, Wetzler
Stresse, Berlin-Wilmersdorf. -
29.8.1939 A reply letter to "Dear Ben" from "Bohle" 30, Wetzler
Stresse, Berlin-Wilmersdorf. [This Bohle, who Greene considered a friend,
is
Heinrich (Harry)]
January 1939 Office to promote emigration of Jews "by every possible
means" established.
30.1.1939 Hitler speaks of "the destruction of the Jewish race in
Europe" in the event of a second world war fermented by "international
finance
Jewry".
Spring 1939: Reich Committee for Scientific
Research of Hereditary and Severe Constitutional Diseases established.
This oversaw the killing of an
estimated 5,000 'deformed' children in a 'euthanasia' programme that only
finished in November 1944.
July 1939 Planning of 'T4' programme of 'mercy killings' of the
insane
began. Experimental gas chambers were tried out at Brandenburg euthanasia
centre in late 1939. An estimated 80,000 to 100,000 people were killed
before the T4 programme was 'stalled' in August 1941 after public protest.
In October 1939, Hitler signed a back-dated "euthanasia decree" to 1
September 1939 which authorised Philipp Bouhler and Karl Brandt to carry
out the programme of euthanasia (translated into English as follows):
Reich Leader Bouhler and Dr. med. Brandt are charged with the
responsibility of enlarging the competence of certain physicians,
designated by name, so that patients who, on the basis of human judgment
[menschlichem Ermessen], are considered incurable, can be granted mercy
death [Gnadentod] after a discerning diagnosis."
The new recruits were mostly psychiatrists, notably
Carl Schneider
(Heidelberg), Max de Crinis (Berlin) and Paul Nitsche from the
Sonnenstein state institution. (Wikipedia)
Friday 1.9.1939
Russia and Germany invaded Poland.
During the occupation, Universities in Poland were closed down, but the
"Secret University of Warsaw" (Tajny Uniwersytet Warszawski) was
organised by lecturers and met in people's homes.
The
Bauman family, who were Jews, ran away from their home in
Posnan, near the German boarder, as the Germans invaded. "We took the last
train east, but we were stopped at a station which was being bombed by the
Germans. We should have run away from the station because that was the
object of the bombing, but" [my father] "wanted to find a ticket inspector
to pay for our tickets." (Zygmunt Bauman quoted
Bunting, M. 2003)
The family of
Janina Lewinson (also Jews) remained in Poland.
Janina's father was a surgeon and a Polish Army reservist. He was
attached
to a military hospital during the German invasion, was captured by
the Red
Army and taken to Kozielsk, officers' camp. His family received just
one
letter before he was killed in the
Katyn Forest massacre.
15.9.1939 House of Commons Debate: ANGLO-GERMAN ORGANISATIONS.
Mr. Mander asked the Home Secretary whether the activities of the Anglo-
German Kameradschaft, the
Anglo-German
Circle, and the Anglo-German Academic Bureau, have now closed
down; and whether the Anglo-German Review has ceased publication.
Sir J. Anderson: I am informed that the Anglo-German Kameradschaft and
Anglo-German Circle have been disbanded, that the Anglo-German Academic
Bureau is in process of being wound-up, and that the publication of the
Anglo-German Review has been discontinued.
Commander Locker-Lampson: Are the British Fascists in Smith Square also
being liquidated?
Sir J. Anderson: That is another question, which my hon. and gallant Friend
had better put on the Paper
|
18.8.1939
Janina Lewinson's thirteenth birthday.
15.9.1939 to 28.9.1939 Siege of Warsaw by German army.
"On 25 September - it was Monday, the day of Rosh Hashna,
the Jewish New Year - all hell on earth broke loose. We learnt later that
it was the final German storming of Warsaw... An immense wall of flame...
We stood in perfect emptiness, Artek and I... on the brink of life...l Then
we kissed, the first kiss of my life and his. And the last - we believed"
(Janina, pp 25-26)
"since I was just 13. I had to wear a band, a white band with a
blue star. It started at 13 and I was just that. My sister was still not
obliged to wear it, she was just nine."
1940
5.3.1940 A proposal of Lavrentiy Beria's to execute all members of
the Polish Officer Corps, was approved and signed by the Soviet Politburo,
including Joseph Stalin. About 22,000 victims were murdered in the Katyn
Forest in Russia, the Kalinin and Kharkov prisons and elsewhere during
April and May 1940.
9.4.1940 The German army crossed the Danish border by land, sea and
air. Denmark was the way to Norway.
10.5.1940 - 22.6.1940:
Germany invaded France
22.4.1940 German armistice with French government under which
Germany would occupy northern and western France including the entire
Atlantic coast. The remaining two-fifths of the country would be governed
by the French government with the capital at Vichy under Pétain.
"official rations amounted to 1200 calories per day,
insufficient to support life. French citizens went hungry, but did not
starve to death - they were expected to obtain extra food in various ways.
Many groups were allowed extra rations: the young, heavy labourers,
pregnant and nursing mothers and hospital patients. But not all hospital
patients. Those in psychiatric hospitals were specifically excluded. Their
death rate rose dramatically."
"French psychiatrists reported what was happening at the time, largely in
detached, clinical terms, to avoid the censor. They described famine
oedema; and famine behaviour - fighting round the food trolleys, eating
anything (grass, dust, faeces, even their own fingers) and a profound
lethargy. In a review of the publications in the
Annales Medico-Psychologiques during the Vichy years,
Gourevitch (1995) reported that 'articles on starvation in the
hospitals featured more than any other topic'"
(J.L.T. Birley 2002)
|
18.8.1940
Janina Lewinson's fourteenth birthday.
16.10.1940 Warsaw Ghetto established.
Janina, her sister, Zosia,
and their mother were in the
Warsaw ghetto from
October 1940 to
January 1943. They spent
26 months there.
.
Janina's Warsaw experiences are online -
(archive)
18.8.1941
Janina Lewinson's fifteenth birthday.
1942
"The next day, 22 July 1942, the mass deportation of people from the Warsaw
ghetto began" (Janina p.64) Beginning of the "Grossaktion".
23.7.1942 Mass extermination. by gassing, of Jews from the Warsaw
Ghetto begins at the Treblinka death camp.
"I was trying to make out what day it was, what date. Great-
Aunt Bella, who had been keeping a diary, helped me: it was Tuesday 18
August, which meant it was my birthday, probably the last. I was sixteen"
(Janina p.72)"
Towards the winter of 1942/1943,
Janina Lewinson remembers seeing leaflets calling Jews to fight
and defend themselves. The second 'aktion' began in January.
1943
25.1.1943
Janina Lewinson, her mother and Sophie escaped from the Ghetto
and hid with families in the Aryan areas of Warsaw.
1944
25.8.1944
Free French recapture Paris.
1945
Saturday 27.1.1945
freeing of Auschwitz by Russian troops.
October 1945 "
Les Temps Modernes est une revue politique,
littéraire et philosophique, fondée en octobre 1945 par Jean-
Paul Sartre et Simone de Beauvoir, publiée chez Gallimard d'octobre
1945 à décembre 1948, chez Julliard de janvier 1949
à septembre 1965, aux Presses d'aujourd'hui d'octobre 1965
à mars 1985, chez Gallimard à
partir d'avril 1985."
Wikipedia
December 1945 Lectures resumed for almost 4,000 students in the
ruins of Warsaw University. The buildings were gradually rebuilt.
1946
Zygmunt Bauman says he was a "communist" from 1946 to
1967.
"Poland was a very backward country before the war, which was exacerbated
by the occupation. In an impoverished country you expect deprivation,
humiliation, human indignity and so on, a whole complex of social and
cultural problems to be dealt with. If you looked at the political spectrum
in Poland at that time, the Communist party promised the best solution. Its
political programme was the most fitting for the issues which Poland faced.
And I was completely dedicated. Communist ideas were just a continuation of
the Enlightenment."
(Guardian interview 28.4.2001)
1946
Polski Przeglad Socjologiczny began to appear again (but
not for
long)
Autumn 1946 the City of Frankfurt, Hesse and
Frankfurt University expressed a wish to reestablish the
Institut für Sozialforschung at the university.
After many doubts and skeptical considerations
Horkheimer agreed to return.
(Geschichte) - He returned in
1949 and
the Institute reopened in
1950 (Wikipedia).
The twelve USA trials before the
Nuremberg Military Tribunals took place
from 9.12.1946 to 13.4.1949. The trials were:
The Doctors' Trial (9.12.1946 - 20.8.1947)
The Milch Trial (2.1.1947 - 14.4.1947)
The Judges' Trial (5.3.1947 - 4.12.1947)
The Pohl Trial (8.4.1947 - 3.11.1947)
The Flick Trial (19.4.1947 - 22.12.1947)
The IG Farben Trial (27.8.1947 - 30.7.1948)
The Hostages Trial (8.7.1947 - 19.2.1948)
The RuSHA Trial (20.12.1947 - 10.3.1948)
The Einsatzgruppen Trial (29.9.1947 - 10.4.1948)
The Krupp Trial (8.12.1947 - 31.7.1948)
The Ministries Trial (6.1.1948 - 13.4.1949)
The High Command Trial (30.12.1947 - 28.10.1948)
January
1948 Marian and Eugene Brody returned to the USA. "Dr. Brody
told an interviewer in 1999 that he was dealing with "death squad leaders,
people who had been in charge of major occupied areas and were responsible
for the deaths of many - doctors who condemned schizophrenic and
developmentally disabled people to death, [and] industrialists who had used
slave labor - it was difficult to carry out the purely psychiatric tasks
without being concerned about the entire issue of human rights and Nazi
atrocities"
(Baltimore Sun obituary)
4.3.1947. American forces at Dachau charged 28 former camp personnel, 2
former kapos, and 1 former prisoner with participating in the Operation of
the Buchenwald concentration camp. The former prisoner was Edwin Katzen-
Ellenbogen
5.8.1947 Dr. Edwin Katzen-Ellenbogen on the witness stand
|
1947
1947 First students enrolled in the Warsaw University Institute of
Sociology
(External link Polish links to English and German
translations)
1948
1948 East African High Commission established cooperation between
the Kenya Colony, Uganda Protectorate, and Tanganyika Territory (of the
United Kingdom). There was a customs union, with a common external tariff,
currency, and postage. It also dealt with common services in transport and
communications, research, and education. Following independence (1961-
1964), these integrated activities were reconstituted and the
East African Common Services Organisation.
Bauman
- the 'persecution' years
"I cooperated for two, three years, I was the object of
persecution from the secret services for 15 years. Immediately afterwards,
I was spied on, I was reported on, I had my flat bugged, my telephone was
bugged, and so on. I was thrown away from the internal army, and in the
end, as you know, I was expelled from the university, expelled from any
ability to publish." Zygmunt Bauman
(Guardian interview 28.4.2001)
"
March 1948 Birth of
Margrit Schiller. Eldest child of an army major in the West
German Military Counterintelligence. Her mother a and a local CDU
politician. She studied psychology in Bonn and Heidelberg. A student member
of the
1970 Socialist Patients' Collective. Became first a supporter
and then active member of the Red Army Faction. Arrested
22.10.1971 in
Hamburg, when policeman Norbert Schmid was shot (but
not with Schiller's weapon). The alleged shooter Gerhard Mller later
became witness of the Attorney General .
According to their own statements, Schiller was in prison several times in
solitary confinement . She participated in several hunger strikes . After
her release from prison in
1973 she went back
underground. Arrested again
4.2.1974 and serving a prison sentence
until
1979. The offense, on the basis she was sentenced, closed card
forgery , unauthorized possession of firearms as well as membership and
support of the
RAF one. To avoid a feared re-arrest, she went in
1985
after Cuba into exile, where granted her the government for political
asylum .
(source)
1949
1949
Theodor W. Adorno wrote "Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft"
(Cultural Criticism and Society),
published in Prismen (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1955), pages 7-31
"The more total the society, the more reified also the spirit
[mind] and
all the more paradoxical its beginning, of itself to extricate itself from
reification. Yet even the most extreme consciousness of calamity
threatens to degenerate into empty chatter. Cultural critique finds
itself opposite the final stage of the dialectic of
culture and
barbarism
:
to write a poem after
Auschwitz is barbaric, and that eats away also at
that insight that explains why it has become impossible to write poetry
today." (30-31)
October 1949 Adorno left America for Europe just as The
Authoritarian Personality was being published. Adorno resumed his
teaching at the university soon after his arrival, with seminars on "Kant's
Transcendental Dialectic," aesthetics, Hegel, "Contemporary Problems in the
Theory of Knowledge" and "The Concept of Knowledge." (Wikipedia on Adorno)
|
1950
Chlorpromazine
(see above) was synthesized on 11.12.1951 by Paul
Charpentier, in the laboratories of Rhône-Poulenc, a French
pharmaceutical company, and released for clinical investigation in May
1952 as a possible potentiator of general anesthesia... Chlorpromazine
became
available on prescription in France, under the
proprietary name of Largactil, ie, large in action, in November
1952. The proprietary name was chosen to reflect the diversity of
pharmacological actions and potential clinical indications of the drug.
1951 Henri Laborit, a surgeon at the Val-de-Grâce military
hospital in Paris reasoned that 'surgical shock' might be lessened if
patients' metabolic rates were reduced by external cooling by using ice
packs and administering a mixture of various 'potientiating' drugs. Laborit
decided to use antihistamines as part of this cocktail to exploit their
drowsiness effect. Rhône-Poulenc gave him a sample of the
experimental
drug 4560RP, chlorpromazine.
Laborit noticed that instead of patients anxiously awaiting the mask,
they showed a certain 'uninterest' which he termed 'euphoric quietude'. He
noted in his report:
"These findings allow one to anticipate certain indications for
the use of this compound in psychiatry, possibly in connection with
barbiturates, in a
deep sleep cure"
(Dronsfield and Ellis
2006)
1952 Henri Laborit, P. Huguenard, R. Alluaume "Un noveau
stabilisateur végétatif (le 4560 RP)" La Presse
Médicale. 1952; 60: pp 206-208.
1952 J. Delay and P.Deniker "Le traitments de psychoses par une
méthode neurolytique dérivée de
l'hibernothérapie; le 4560 RP utilisée seul en cure
prolongée et continue".
Comptes rendus du 50e congrès des médecins
aliénistes et neurologistes de France et des
pays de langue française,
(France) 1952; 50: pp 497-502.
Between 1953 and 1955, chlorpromazine treatment in
psychiatry spread
around the world. (Ban,
T. 2007)
|
1951 to 1954 Gomulka denounced as right-wing and reactionary,
and expelled from the Polish United Workers' Party - imprisoned.
5.3.1953 Death of Joseph Stalin
"The 'thaw' which set in after the death of Stalin greatly
benefited Polish sociology, and under
Gomulka the Polish sociologists, who are for the most part, like
Ossowski, convinced Marxists, placed themselves unreservedly at the
disposal of the work of reconstruction in their country" (
Maus, H. 1956/1962 p.169)
Sometime in 1953 (aged 28),
Zygmunt Bauman was dismissed from his post in the army. He was
told that his father had been seen making enquiries at the Israeli Embassy
about the possibility of emigration.
1954
Zygmunt Bauman teaching at the University of Warsaw from
1954
1955 Butabika Hospital opened in Kampala,
Uganda. -
Wikipedia -
east london
link
In 1955 Butabika hospital, located on the shores of Lake Victoria, was
started as a mental asylum for psychotic patients and serving the whole of
East and Central Africa. It catered for both civil and forensic cases. The
latter were criminal psychotics who could not be contained by just the
prison services. The location at Butabika Hospital was considered because
it was more spacious than
Mulago hospital where patients would often be a nuisance to
passers-by in the densely populated suburbs of Mulago. In the early years,
expatriate psychiatric workers manned the mental health facilities in
Uganda right from
Hoima, Mulago and Butabika hospitals. The first indigenous
mental health workers learnt on the job as far back as 1956. Some were sent
abroad for specialized training in psychiatry.
|
25.2.1956 Nikita Khrushchev's report "On the Personality
Cult and
its Consequences" to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress
12.3.1956 Boleslaw Bierut, president of Poland, died in Moscow.
22.8.1956 to 29.8.1956 Soviet bloc delegates attend
World
Congress of Sociology in Amsterdam.
19.10.1956 Rehabilitation of Wladyslaw Gomulka in Poland -
Wikipedia - General Secretary of the Polish
United Workers' Party from 1956 to 1970.
26.10.1956 Red Army troops invade Hungary.
29.10.1956 Israel invades the Sinai Peninsula and push Egyptian
forces back toward the Suez Canal.
31.10.1956 The United Kingdom and France begin bombing Egypt to
force the reopening of the Suez Canal.
1957 to
1959 Russian publication (three volumes) of selected
works of
Antonio Gramsci.
See
Social Science Timeline.
"I discovered Gramsci and he gave me the opportunity of an
honourable discharge from Marxism. It was a way out of orthodox Marxism,
but I never became anti-Marxist as most did. I learnt a lot from Karl Marx
and I'm grateful" (
Zygmunt Bauman quoted
Bunting, M.
2003)
"The Institute of Sociology at the Warsaw University emerged from the
Faculty of Philosophy in 1957 and since 1968 has been known
as the Institute of Sociology." "The existence of the Institute has been
always related to the outstanding work of the best Polish Sociologists
including among others: Stanislaw Ossowski, Stefan Nowak, Zygmunt Bauman,
Jerzy Szacki, Antonina Kloskowska". "Stanislaw Ossowski (1897-1963) - The
patron of the Institute of Sociology." "When Poland was still under control
of the Soviet Union, the Institute of Sociology was one of the centres of
Polish democratic political opposition which ignited problems with the
communist state authorities." (
Powerpoint Presentation by
Anna Broda and Dariusz Brzosko of The Insitute of Sociology - University of
Warsaw, Poland. Also available as
html
1957
Polski Przeglad Socjologiczny re-appeared.
Friday 4.10.1957 First Sputnik (Russian satellite). Second was sent
on 3.11.1957 with a dog on board.
Late 1950s
Zygmunt Bauman studied for a year at the London School of
Economics, under Robert McKenzie. He prepared a comprehensive study on the
British socialist movement.
1959
Zygmunt Bauman (in Polish) British Socialism: Sources,
Philosophy, Political Doctrine
1960
1960 Klasa-ruch-elita. Studium Socjologiczne Dziejow Angilskiego
Ruchu Robotniczego [Class, Movement, Elite: A Sociological Study on the
History of the British Labour Movement] by Zygmunt Bauman published in
Warszawa [Warsaw]. It was translated into English in 1972 (publication) by
Sheila Patterson as Between Class and Elite: The Evolution of the
British Labour Movement: A Sociological Study
1961
Wednesday 12.4.1961 Major Yuri Gagarin made first flight into space
and back.
Zygmunt Bauman (in Polish) Questions of Modern American
Sociology
From
"Focus on psychiatry in East Africa" by Frank Njenga
The British Journal of Psychiatry October 2002, 181 (4) pages 354-
359
East Africa is made up of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, all previous colonies
of the British Empire which attained their independence in the early 1960s.
At the time of independence, the East African community held the three
countries together. Political expedience broke up the community in 1977 but
greater wisdom and economic reality have brought the three countries back
together in December 2001, in the form of a common Legislative Assembly and
Court of Appeal. A Customs Union is expected soon, ahead of full political
integration.
Geographically, the three countries surround the second largest freshwater
lake in the world, Lake Victoria. They can be treated as one system for the
purpose of this discussion but, as will become evident, the three developed
in distinctly different ways following political independence. Kenya
embraced a strict capitalist market-driven economy, Tanzania committed
itself to a socialist system of government called Ujamaa, while Uganda
experimented with rapidly changing and increasingly violent political
systems. In recent times, the three have once again discovered commonality
in being home to 1.5 million refugees from all the surrounding countries,
namely Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Burundi, Congo, Malawi and Mozambique.
Their mental health services have, however, remained united in their
apparent refusal to improve. A visit to the famous mental hospitals,
Muhimbili" [
Mirembe?
(Tanzania),
Butabika
(Uganda) and
Mathari
(Kenya), in the late
1960s and early 1970s told the same story of neglected, dilapidated,
overcrowded asylums located far from the centre of the city; areas not to
be visited by those with any medical authority. Many of the patients spent
years in these institutions, never visited by psychiatrists or relatives
and often receiving chlorpromazine or barbiturates (when available) for
sedation.
|
1962
1962
Zygmunt Bauman
co-edited with S. Chodak, J. Strojnowski, J. Banaszkiewicz (in Polish)
The Party Systems of Modern Capitalism, and published (in Polish)
his own The Society We Live In and Outline of Sociology.
Questions and Concepts
1963
15.10.1964 Khrushchev ousted as Party Leader
1964-1968
Zygmunt Bauman Professor of General Sociology at Warsaw
University.
In 1964 Bauman published (in Polish) Outline of the Marxist
Theory of Society and Socjologia na co dzien (Sociology for
Everyday Life). Socjologia na co dzien "reached a large popular
audience in Poland and later formed the foundation for the English-language
text-book
Thinking Sociologically (1990).
(Wikipedia)
1964
Baeyer, Häfner, and Kisker's
Psychiatrie der Verfolgten. [Baeyer in charge of the
Heidelberg Psychiatric
Hospital
from 1955 to 1972.
Wolfgang Huber began working there in 1964.
1965
Zygmunt Bauman published (in Polish) Visions of a Human
World: Studies on the social genesis and the function of sociology
1966
Zygmunt Bauman published (in Polish)
Culture and Society, Preliminaries
1966 Yusuf Badri established the
Ahfad University College for Women in Omdurman, across the Nile
from Khartoum, with 23 students and a faculty of three, including Yusuf,
Ahfad now has an enrollment of over 5,000 students.
22.6.1966
"sit-in" at the Free University of Berlin
1966-1970 "Dr. HUBER expands his voluntarily undertaken work in the
Policlinic of the Psychiatric University Clinic well beyond his personal
duties".
1967
2.6.1967 Student
Benno Ohnesorg shot and killed by a Police
officer, on a demonstration against an official visit of the Shah of Iran
to West Germany.
1968
An anti-semitic purge in 1968 meant that
Zygmunt Bauman and his wife Janina lost their jobs. "They joined
their daughter in Israel, but he was not a Zionist, and they felt
uncomfortable. By the time they arrived in Leeds they were in their 40s."
(Guardian interview 28.4.2001)
1967 Power of Milton Obote in
Uganda cemented by parliament passing a new constitution that
abolished the federal structure of the independence constitution and
created an executive presidency. The "kingdoms" were abolished by Article
118(1) of the 'republican constitution' of 1967, which stated thus: "The
institution of King or Ruler of a Kingdom or Constitutional Head of a
District, by whatever name called, existing immediately before the
commencement of this Constitution under the law then in force, is hereby
abolished." As well as
Buganda, this included Ankole (also called Nkore)
in south west Uganda was abolished by Obote in 1967. the 1967 that
ultimately eliminated kingdoms.
1968 Wilhelm Hahn (14.5.1909-9.12.1996) was CDU Minister for Culture
[education) in Baden-Wuerttemberg from 1968 to 1978.
"When Minister HAHN introduced his new university law and HUBER, at that
time vice director of the policlinic of psychiatry, stood against this law
in his quality as candidate of his 'list Demos' with the votes of 90
colleagues, he had long since opened the clinic to the population. "Get
along with each other and stick together, foremost outside, too. If
necessary also against me and the other physicians." - and the students
among the patients, numerically in the minority, were included in this
dynamic of dialogue -> dialectic -> collectivity."
1968
At Heidelberg,
Wolfgang Huber developed a
Patientenkollektivs (Patient Collective) "1968: Entwicklung und
Gründung des ursprünglichen Patientenkollektivs durch Dr. HUBER,
mehr außerhalb, aber auch zunehmend innerhalb seines neuen
Arbeitsplatzes". "Development and foundation of the original Patients'
Collective by Dr. HUBER, more outside of but also and increasing inside his
new sphere of work." (2001 list of dates)
30.5.1968 Notstandgesetze (Emergency Acts) passed as 17th
constitutional amendment to the Grundgesetz, adding emergency clauses to
ensure the federal government's ability to act in crises such as natural
disasters, uprisings or war. The laws came into effect on 28.6.1968,
marking the end of the special powers the Allied forces had been given over
Germany in the Statute of Occupation of
21.9.1949.
(Wikipedia)
1969
28.4.1969 "Je cesse d'exercer mes fonctions de président de
la République. Cette décision prend effet aujourd'hui
midi". (Charles de Gaulle)
May 1969 Dr Spazier denied a medical position previously offered -
Dr Rauch, assistant medical officer replaced (Helen)
October 1969 Dr Kretz appointed
1970
January 1970 to November 1972 Rolf Rendtorff rector of Heidelberg
University. The problems of mediating between conservative professors, the
Ministry of education
(Kultusministerium) of Baden-Wrttemberg and the students
demanding reforms, led eventually to his resignation.
February 1970 At Heidelberg,
patients held several "assemblies", some with the press present.
This may have been the origin of the Sozialistisches Patientenkollektiv
(Socialist Patient Collective)
5.2.1970 "first general assembly of patients in medical
history" demanding the withdrawal of Wolfgang Huber's notice and the
resignation of Kretz
29.2.1970 Compromise solution
"Assistant Medical Officer Dr. Huber was eventually fired together with his
patients in February 1970 and was banned from entering the psychiatric
clinic and the out-patient clinic"
(Huber 1972/1973 p.20)
2.3.1970 Sozialistisches Patientenkollektiv founded at Heidelberg
University by Wolfgang Huber, his wife Ursula Schaefer, two colleagues and
40 ex-patients from the Heidelberg Psychiatric Clinic. [From this point, I
think the story means that the Sozialistisches Patientenkollektiv existed
as a unit within the University - not within the clinic]
"There was a Marx work group, a Hegel working group, one of
anti-psychiatry and one to the new left social analysis. I enrolled
immediately for interviews, which were named in the SPK "Individual
agitation"."
(Margrit Schiller's autobiography
quoted - German)
April 1970 First issue of
Cahiers pour la Folie
[Directors of the Maoist journal La Cause du peuple were imprisoned
in early 1970. Jean-Paul Sartre was asked to become the Director on the
grounds that the government would not arrest him.]
1.5.1970 Number 20 of
with Jean-Paul Sartre as Director of publication of La Cause du
peuple. In May 1971 it merged
with J'accuse and the first Cause of the people - J'accuse
appeared on 24.5.1971. Sartre remained Director until September 1973.
La Cause du peuple gave publicity to prison issues.
5.6.1970 Founding statement of the Rote Armee Fraktion, "Die
Rote Armee aufbauen!", published in 883 magazine.
In a paper on the concept of the urban guerilla, the Rote Armee
Fraktion wrote that "American imperialism is a paper tiger. This means
that it may be finally defeated. Victory is possible if we fight in
every corner of the world, forcing it to split its forces to make it
possible to cut it down because of this division. If the
theory of the Chinese Communists is right, there is then no
reason for any country or region to opt out of the anti-imperialist
struggle under the pretext that forces of the revolution are low while
those of the reaction are strong". [Les Temps Modernes March 1974]
9.12.1970 Eviction order against the
SPK. (2001 list of dates)
1971
8.2.1971 (France)
Manifesto of the Le Groupe d'information sur les prisons signed
by Jean-Marie Domenach, Michel Foucault et Pierre Vidal-Naquet.
24.3.1971
"PATIENTS' INFO No 33: It concerns telephoned death threats against
Wolfgang HUBER". (2001 list
of dates)
16.4.1971 and 5.5.1971 "PATIENTS' INFO No 35-36 ... Suicide
equals murder / starvation equals murder. Concerning what the press
describes as a so called suicide of an SPK(H)-patient on 8.4.1971".
(2001 list of dates)
24.6.1971 "a mysterious shooting at Heidelberg police station".
Search of
Wolfgang Huber's house.
Wolfgang Huber and two other SPK members arrested. Wolfgang
Huber was released a day later, the other two remained in custody.
25.6.1971 and 26.6.1971. "a mass search operation". Eight SPK
members arrested.
30.6.1971 PATIENTS' INFO No 47: - GORILLAS IN HEIDELBERG
" ... we demand the licenses to make use of 500 weapons for patients so
that they can defend their often demanded right to self-defense, against
the outbreak of unrestricted police terror, by these means". "30.06.71:
PATIENTEN-INFO Nr. 47 - GORILLAS IN HEIDELBERG
"... fordern wir 500 Waffenscheine für Patienten, damit sie ihr
oftmals gefordertes Recht auf Selbstverteidigung gegen den losgebrochenen
maßlosen Polizeiterror durch diese Mittel unterstreichen
können." (2001 list of
dates)
16.7.1971
Informationezentrum Rote Volksuniversitat [Information Centre of
the Red People's University] formed in place of Sozialistisches
Patientenkollektiv.
19.7.1971 - 20.7.1971 New arrest warrants against 11 SPK
members, house searches and arrests. (2001 list of dates) [May have included the re-
arrest of
Wolfgang Huber. He was in prison from 1971 to
January 1976.
22.10.1971 Arrest of
Margrit Schiller
in Hamburg. "While arresting her,
RAF members Irmgard
Möller and Gerhard Müller attempt to rescue her, getting into a
shootout with police. Police sergeant Heinz Lemke is shot in the foot.
Sergeant Norbert Schmid is killed".
(source)
7.11.1972 Beginning of the trials of Wolfgang and Ursel Huber
and others. A teach-in on the trials with, among others, Professor
Brueckner was held.
November 1972 Counter-inquiry (French: Enquête) of European
supporters held in Heidelberg over several weeks: International Information
Group for Counterinvestigations into the SPK trial. Organised by the
IZRU,
very actively supported by Jean-Paul Sartre.
19.12.1972
Wolfgang Huber and Ursel Huber each sentenced to
four and a half years in prison.
1972
Groupe d'information sur le Asiles (Groupe Information
Asiles or GIA) (Group for Information on Asylums) formed sometime in 1972
28.1.1972 West German Chancellor Willy Brandt and the premiers of
the states instituted the "Radikalenerlass" (Anti-Radical Decree).
17.4.1972 Jean Paul Sartre's
preface to SPK - Aus der Kranheit eine Waffe Machen [Make
Your Illness a
Weapon]
Link to web copy of manuscript of Sartre's
letter and a translation into English.
1973
A.R.M. (Association contre la répression médico-
policière) was an organisation of the non-authoritarian
left in France that existed in 1973.
8.5.1973
Hunger strike of German political prisoners began on
"the
anniversary of the victory over Nazi fascism".
Political prisoners in Germany were (almost completely) members of the
RAF - Rote Armee Fraktion RAF or the
SPK, which Les Temps Modernes called "Collectif
socialiste de patients de l'universite de Heidelberg"
[Les Temps Modernes March 1974]
end of June 1973 end of hunger strike.
Saturday 30.6.1973
Fresnes, outside Paris: "it was rather a shock when a group in
one of the
workshops introduced themselves as the
Red Army Faction or RAF from
Germany, who said they were associated with the Bader Meinhof Group."
(Lesley). "we divided into small groups, where many people did speak
English, there were police with guns wandering amongst us and closely
listening in. Like Lesley we had not reckoned on the involvement of the
Socialist Patients Kollective (SPK) and their links with the Red Army
Faction. We remember that some members of the RAF were in prison at that
time and on hunger strike as there were leaflets about this." (Liz and
Brian).
Sunday 1.7.1973 Press conference followe by a march:
On the occasion of the Press Conference, a number of celebrities signed an
appeal calling for an end to the solitary confinement of political
prisoners and that they should be treated as the
common law prisoners. The signatories included
Leclerc,
Michel Foucault,
Jean-Paul Sartre,
Philippe Sollers,
Marcelin Pleynet,
Jean-Jacques de Felice and le C.A.P. (Comite
d'action des prisonniers).
Paris
march to the West German embassy in support of members of the
SPK in prison awaiting trial - "The
IZRU
(Informationezentrum Rote Volksuniversitat) [Information Centre of the
Red People's University] from Germany described the treatment of the S.P.K.
(Socialist Patients Collective) who are in prison awaiting trial. Political
prisoners are isolated from all contact with other prisoners, have
restricted visits from close relatives and all mail is censored. 60
prisoners had been on a hunger strike for seven weeks which had been
ignored by the authorities and the press"
1974
March 1974
Les Temps Modernes [Mars 1974 (1)] contained
an article about what it called the
"torture" of political
prisoners in West
Germany.
"Malgré ce boycott par la droite et par la gauche, la
grève de la faim a été menée collectivement
environ un mois et demi et s'est achevée par une conférence
de presse donnée à Paris dans les locaux de l'A.P.L. par les
avocats des prisonniers politiques, et par une manifestation devant
l'ambassade d'Allemagne avec la participation des membres des groupes
suivants:
A.R.M. (Association contre la répression médico-
policière),
Cahiers pour la folie,
G.I.A. (Groupe d'information sur
les
asiles), comités contre la torture envers les prisonniers
politiques
en R.F.A.,
I.Z.R.U. informationszentrum, Rote Volksuniversitât -
Heidelberg, The Mental Patient Union
(Grande-Bretagne)."
"Despite the" [publicity] "boycott by the right and the left,
the hunger strike was conducted collectively about a month and a half and
ended with a press conference given in Paris in the premises of the A.P.L.
by counsel [lawyers or advocates] for the political prisoners, and a
demonstration in front of the Germany Embassy [in Paris] with the
participation of
members of the following groups: A.R.M. (association against medico-
policiere repression), cahiers pour la folie, GIA (group information on
asylums), committees against torture against political prisoners in the
Federal Republic of [West]
Germany [République fédérale d'Allemagne], I.Z.R.U.
informationszentrum, Rote Volksuniversitat - Heidelberg,
The Mental Patient Union (Great Britain)."
[SPK members mentioned in the dossier in relation to a possible diagnosis
of mental disorder: Eckehard Bleck,
Siegfried Hausner, Heinz Mühler et
Werner Schork]
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
10.11.1982 Brezhnev died and was succeeded by Andropov
1983
1983
Sudan National Council for Higher Education endorsed the
principle of Arabicization. Carried out in several faculties of the
University of Khartoum by 1987. Policy further endorsed by the National
Islamic Front backed government (see
1989). By 2008 almost all universities taught in arabic,
with the exception of some private colleges using English as a medium of
instruction.
(source)
June 1983
Sudanese President Jaafer Mohammed al-Numeiry announced a
thorough reform of the judicial system. 8.9.1983 President announced
that the penal code had been revised in order to link it "organically and
spiritually" with Islamic Law
(Sharia). Theft, adultery, murder and related
offences would hence forth be judged according to the Koran, and alcohol
and gambling were both prohibited; non-Moslems, however, would be exempt
from Koranic penalties except when convicted of murder or theft.
23.9.1983 Inauguration of the new code marked by a ceremony in
Khartoum in which stocks of alcohol were dumped in the river Nile.
1984
2.2.1984 Andropov died and was succeeded by Chernenko
1985
10.3.1985 Chernenko died and was succeeded by Gorbachev
1985/1986
Glasnost and perestroika
1986
GESIS - German Social Science Infrastructure Services
established. One of its databases is
The Knowledge Base Social Sciences in Eastern Europe
(not stated when established). This includes reviews of the history of
social sciences in different eastern european countries.
(See text archive)
1987
1988
1989
30.6.1989 Omar al-Bashir came to power in a bloodless military coup
in Sudan.
The new military government suspended political parties and introduced an
Islamic legal code.
1990
1991
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12.11.1991
Ahfad University College for Women celebrated the opening of its
new
library,
Maktabat El Hafeed.
This library, the most modern in the Sudan, was the
first building to be completed at Ahfad's new campus extension, and was to
serve as a focal point for academic life at Ahfad.
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1992
1993
1.1.1993 Publication of SPK: TURN ILLNESS INTO A WEAPON
Socialist Patients' Collective. Translated from the German by Dr. W.D.
Huber. Publisher: KRRIM (via AK Distribution) ISBN: 33926491175
(source)
1994
1995
Conference organised by the American Institute for Contemporary
German Studies at The
Johns Hopkins University on the reconstruction of
German culture after
1945. Papers published 1996 as
Revisiting Zero-Hour 1945 - The Emergence of Postwar
German Culture (pdf) edited by Stephen Brockmann and Frank
Trommler
16.5.1995
ruprecht Heidelberger student(inn)enzeitung article about
the SDP and Wolfgang
Huber
M. Gourevitch, (1995) "Les Annales Médico-Psychologiques sous
Pétain". Perspectives Psychiatriques, 46, 27-31
(see above)
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1995
Sudan National Council for Higher Education granted Ahfad
University for Women full university status, based on the expansion of its
curriculum and student body.
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12.1.1995
Colonial Psychiatry and the African Mind by
Jock McCulloch. Cambridge University Press,
1996
1997
1998
1.7.1998 First "Heathen World"
archive on the SPK.
One copy has "this article copyright 1996 by
John Cheney".
1999
July/August 1999
irren-offensive
deutchsland. A tour of sites connected with the Nazi
extermination of psychiatric patients. Includes a list of institutions from
which victims are believed to have come.
"In August 1999, the World Psychiatric Association held its international
congress in Hamburg, the first to have been held in Germany. It provided an
opportunity, bravely taken, to report on, and mount an exhibition of, the
abuses of psychiatry during the Nazi rule between 1933 and 1945"
(J.L.T. Birley, The British Journal of Psychiatry
2002)
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2000
2001
11.7.2001
First web archive of German version of
SPK list of dates.
25.12.2001
First web archive of the SOCIALIST PATIENTS' COLLECTIVE / PATIENTS' FRONT
SPK/PF(H) List of dates. Reference in the document to "Today, 22
years later" (than 1971) suggest it was written in
1993
2002
Sunday 24.11,2002
Zanzibar: Mental health case study
BBC Live
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16.10.2002 The New
Library
of Alexandria (New Bibliotheca Alexandrina) in
Egypt
is "dedicated to recapture the spirit of openness and scholarship of the
original Bibliotheca Alexandrina".
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2003
5.4.2003
Madeleine Bunting Guardian "Passion and Pessimism"
- A profile of Zygmunt and and Janina Bauman, including
interview material.
2004
2005
2006
14.6.2006 What appears to be
the first Wikipedia article about the Socialist Patients
Collective.
2007
7.1.2007 to 7.2.2007. Field study trip on Mental health care
through East Africa.
(report -
archive)
21.12.2007 First archive of
Terror begets Terror
's critique of the Sozialistisches Patientenkollektiv. This
confuses
Wolfgang Huber born 12.8.1942 with
Wolfgang Huber born
early in 1935.
2008
2009
A report of the assessment of the mental health system in Sudan using the
World Health Organization - Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems
(WHO-AIMS). Khartoum, Sudan 2009.
Available online -
(offline)
2010
2011
2012
2013
"The evolution of mental health services /counseling in Uganda" by
Norman D Nsereko of Nkumba University, Entebbe, Uganda. Available on
researchgate -
(offline) - See
Uganda
December 2013 Edward N. Snyder
Work not Alms: The Bethel Mission to East Africa and German
Protestant debates over Eugenics, 1880-1933 PhD Dissertation
University of Minnesota. -
(offline) - See
Bethel, Lutindi
2014
2015
Salma Tatta Gasim 26.2.2015 on Facebook
In Sudan one of the most common and most asked questions: "What family are
you from?".
Replying
"Badri", I am overwhelmed by their praises and comments. "You
are the family that educated our girls and women". "Turned our young girls
into strong, independent and successful women". "Badri women are strong and
successful women".
Hearing these words I can't help but feel proud!
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Summer 2015 Presentation:
"State of Mental health in Uganda" by Samuel Maling of Mbarara
University of Science and Technology.
-
(offline) - See
Uganda
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African and Asian asylums in 1900
East Africa
Egypt and Mesopotamia
Kenya
Sudan
Uganda
Austria 1784 on
Greece
Islam
European middle ages
Renaissance
17th Century
18th Century
Guggenmoos and
Guggenbühl
Germany: Early 19th century
Germany Academic
1925:
Hitler's Mein Kampf and
Zygmunt Bauman
Germany 1945 and after
Spain
For a large part of the world's population, the Mediterranean is culturally
and physically the centre of the earth. A vast land mass north of the
Himalayas through Europe the Middle East and Africa is the conceptual space
on which I am modelling this web page - with the
Americas on another page and the ancient civilisations and
modern colonies east,
where the sunrises for me, on another. Here
in Hackney I am the sunrise or sunset of people with other
earthcores. Greetings friends
Everything has to start somewhere - So I have begun this page with extracts
from
Ackernecht's
(1959) Short History of Psychiatry
mad English
dol Dutch
fou French
mad people English
Irren German (plural of irre/irrer
mad house English
Irrenhaus German
"Dolhuis is een ander woord voor gekkenhuis" (Dutch)
mental patients English
Geisteskranke
German
Psychiatrische Krankenhäuser German
psychiatric hospital English
hôpital psychiatrique French
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